Chapter 1 - Psychology's Roots Flashcards
(130 cards)
1
Q
What Greek naturalist and philosopher wondered about learning and memory, motivation and emotion, perception and personality?
A
Aristotle
2
Q
the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
A
behaviorism
3
Q
historically important perspective that emphasized human growth potential
A
humanistic psychology
4
Q
the science of behavior and mental processes
A
psychology
5
Q
the study of the mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems
A
cognitive psychology
6
Q
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with mental activity (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
A
cognitive neuroscience
7
Q
anything a human or nonhuman animal does
A
behavior
8
Q
Describe the three parts of the scientific attitude.
A
(1) curiosity about the world around us,
(2) skepticism about unproven claims and ideas, and
(3) humility about our own understanding. These three traits guide psychologists as they consider ideas and test them with scientific methods. Ideas that don’t hold up will then be discarded.
9
Q
What event defined the start of scientific psychology?
A
Scientific psychology began in Germany in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory.
10
Q
How did the cognitive revolution affect the field of psychology?
A
It led the field back to its early interest in mental processes and made them acceptable topics for scientific study.
11
Q
The _________ perspective in psychology focuses on how behavior and thought differ from situation to situation and from culture to culture.
A
social-cultural
12
Q
The _________ perspective emphasizes how we learn observable responses.
A
behavioral
13
Q
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, uncovers hidden values, weighs evidence, and assesses conclusions
A
critical thinking
14
Q
an approach that integrates different but complementary views from biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints
A
biopsychosocial apparoach
15
Q
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and handed down from one generation to the next
A
culture
16
Q
“WEIRD” cultures
A
Western Educated Industrial Rich Democratic
17
Q
the age-old controversy over the relative influence of genes and experience in the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s psychological science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
A
nature-nurture issue
18
Q
the principle that our mind processes information at the same time one separate conscious and unconscious tracks
A
dual processing
19
Q
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
A
positive psychology
20
Q
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it. (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
A
hindsight bias
21
Q
Why, after friends start dating, do we often feel that we knew they were meant to be together?
A
We often suffer from hindsight bias–after we’ve learned a situation’s outcome, that outcome seems familiar and therefore obvious.
22
Q
an explanation using principles that organize observations and predict behaviors or events
A
theory
23
Q
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
A
hypothesis
24
Q
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study
A
operational definition
25
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
replication
26
What does a good theory do?
1. It organizes observed facts.
2. It implies hypotheses that offer testable predictions and, sometimes, practical applications.
3. It often stimulates further research.
27
Why is replication important?
When others are able to repeat (replicate) studies and produce similar results, psychologists can have more confidence in the original findings.
28
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
case study
29
We cannot assume that case studies always reveal general principles that apply to all of us. Why not?
Case studies focus on one individual or group, so we can’t know for sure whether the principles observed would apply to a larger population.
30
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to change or control the situation
naturalistic observation
31
What are the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation, such as the EARs study?
In the EARs study, researchers were able to carefully observe and record naturally occurring behaviors outside the artificial environment of a laboratory. However, they were not able to explain the behaviors because they could not control all the factors that may have influenced them.
32
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of that group
survey
33
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
population
34
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
random sample
35
What is an unrepresentative sample, and how do researchers avoid it?
An unrepresentative sample is a group that does not represent the population being studied. Random sampling helps researchers form a representative sample, because each member of the population has an equal chance of being included.
36
a measure of the extent to which two events vary together, and thus of how well either one predicts the other
correlation
37
a method in which researchers vary one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)
experiment
38
assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing any preexisting differences between the groups
random assignments
39
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
experimental groups
40
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; the control group serves as a comparison with the experimental group for judging the effect of the treatment.
control group
41
an inactive substance or condition that is sometimes given to those in a control group in place of the treatment given to the experimental group
placebo
42
in an experiment, a procedure in which both the participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about who has received the treatment or a placebo.
double-blind procedure
43
results caused by expectations alone.
placebo effect
44
What measures do researchers use to prevent the placebo effect from confusing their results?
Research designed to prevent the placebo effect randomly assigns participants to an experimental group (which receives the real treatment) or a control group (which receives a placebo). A double-blind procedure prevents people’s beliefs and hopes from affecting the results, because neither the participants nor those collecting the data know who receives the placebo. A comparison of the results will show whether the real treatment produces better results than belief in that treatment.
45
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
independent variable
46
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.
confounding variable
47
in an experiment, the factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
dependent variable
48
In the rental housing experiment discussed in this section, what was the independent variable? The dependent variable?
The independent variable, which the researchers manipulated, was the implied ethnicity of the applicants’ names. The dependent variable, which researchers measured, was the rate of positive responses from the landlords
49
Why, when testing a new drug to control blood pressure, would we learn more about its effectiveness from giving it to half the participants in a group of 1000 than to all 1000 participants?
We learn more about the drug’s effectiveness when we can compare the results of those who took the drug (the experimental group) with the results of those who did not (the control group). If we gave the drug to all 1000 participants, we would have no way of knowing whether the drug is serving as a placebo or is actually medically effective.
50
giving people enough information about a study to enable them to decide whether they wish to participate.
informed consent
51
after an experiment ends, explaining to participants the study’s purpose and any deceptions researchers used.
debriefing
52
How are animal subjects and human research participants protected?
Animal protection laws, laboratory regulation and inspection, and local and university ethics committees (which screen research proposals) attempt to safeguard animal welfare. International psychological organizations urge researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants, and to protect them from greater-than-usual harm and discomfort, treat their personal information confidentially, and debrief them fully at the end of the experiment
53
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes called the retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
testing effect
54
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.
SQ3R
55
What are the three key elements of the scientific attitude, and how do they support scientific inquiry?
1. Curiosity triggers new ideas. When put to the test, can an idea’s predictions be confirmed?
2. Skepticism encourages attention to the facts. Skeptical testing can reveal which claim best matches the facts.
3. Humility helps us discard predictions that can’t be verified by research. Researchers must be willing to be surprised and follow new ideas.
56
How has psychology’s focus changed over time?
* Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in Germany in 1879, and studied the basic elements of mental experience.
* Early researchers defined psychology as “the science of mental life.” This definition was revised under the influence of the behaviorists in the 1920s to the “scientific study of observable behavior.”
* Behaviorism was one of psychology’s two major forces well into the 1960s. However, the second major force of Freudian psychology, along with the influences of humanistic psychology and cognitive psychology, revived interest in the study of mental processes.
* Psychology is now defined as “the science of behavior and mental processes.”
57
What are psychology’s current perspectives, and what are some of its subfields?
* Psychology’s current perspectives include neuroscience, evolutionary, behavior genetics, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and social-cultural.
* Psychology’s subfields include biological, developmental, cognitive, personality, social, counseling, health, clinical, industrial-organizational, and community.
* Psychologists may conduct basic research to increase the field’s knowledge base or applied research to solve practical problems.
58
What four big ideas run throughout this book?
* Critical thinking is smart thinking. It challenges our beliefs and triggers new ways of thinking. The scientific attitude prepares us to examine assumptions, consider the source, uncover hidden values, weigh evidence, and test conclusions.
* Behavior is a biopsychosocial event. The biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis each offer valuable insight into behavior and mental processes.
* We operate with a two-track mind (dual processing). Our brains process a surprising amount without our awareness, which affects our thinking, memory, perception, language, and attitudes.
* Psychology explores human strengths (positive psychology) as well as challenges (clinical psychology).
59
How does our everyday thinking sometimes lead us to the wrong conclusion?
* Hindsight bias (the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon) is believing, after learning the outcome, that we would have foreseen it.
* Overconfidence is the human tendency to be more confident than correct.
* We perceive order in random events due to our natural eagerness to make sense of our world.
* These tendencies lead us to overestimate our intuition and common sense, and then come to the wrong conclusion.
60
How do theories advance psychological science?
* Psychological theories are explanations using principles that organize observations and predict behaviors or events.
* Theories generate hypotheses—predictions that can be tested using descriptive, correlational, or experimental methods.
* Research results may validate the theory, or lead to its rejection or revision.
* The precise language used in operational definitions allows replication by others. If others achieve similar results, confidence in the conclusion will be greater.
61
How do psychologists use case studies, naturalistic observations, and surveys to observe and describe behavior, and why is random sampling important?
* Case studies study one person or group in depth, in the hope of revealing things true of us all.
* Naturalistic observation studies examine behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to change or control the situation.
* Surveys study many people in less depth, using random sampling to fairly represent the population being studied.
62
What are positive and negative correlations, and how can they lead to prediction but not cause-effect explanation?
* In a positive correlation, both items increase or decrease together.
* In a negative correlation, one item increases as the other decreases.
* Correlations tell us how well one event predicts another (using a measure called a correlation coefficient), but not whether one event caused the other, or whether some third factor influenced both events.
63
How do experiments clarify or reveal cause-effect relationships?
* Experiments create a controlled, simplified version of reality to discover cause-effect relationships.
* Psychologists manipulate one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others. The researchers can then measure changes in other factors (dependent variables). Experiments minimize confounding variables (preexisting differences between groups) through random assignment.
* Experiments allow researchers to compare experimental group results with control group results. Experiments may use a double-blind procedure to control for the placebo effect.
* Psychological scientists must design studies and choose research methods that will best provide meaningful results.
64
How can simplified laboratory experiments help us understand general principles of behavior?
Studying specific examples in controlled environments can reveal important general principles. These general principles, not the specific findings, help may explain many everyday behaviors.
65
Why do psychologists study animals, and what ethical guidelines safeguard human and animal research participants? How do personal values influence psychology’s research and applications?
* Research on animals advances our understanding of other species and sometimes benefits them directly. Animal experimentation also advances our understanding of ourselves and may help solve human problems.
* Professional ethical standards and other legal guidelines, enforced by ethics committees, protect participants. The APA ethics code outlines standards for safeguarding human participants’ well-being, including obtaining their informed consent and debriefing them later.
* Psychologists’ values influence their choice of research topics, their theories and observations, their labels for behavior, and their professional advice. Psychology’s principles could be used for good or evil, but have been used mainly to enlighten and to achieve positive ends.
66
How can psychological principles help you learn, remember, and thrive?
* The testing effect shows that learning and memory are enhanced by actively retrieving, rather than simply rereading, previously studied material. The SQ3R study method—survey, question, read, retrieve, and review—applies principles derived from memory research and can help you learn and remember material.
* Four additional study tips are (1) distribute your study time; (2) learn to think critically; (3) process class information actively; and (4) overlearn.
* Psychological research has shown that people who live happy, thriving lives (1) manage their time to get a full night’s sleep; (2) make space for exercise; (3) have a growth mind-set; and (4) prioritize relationships
67
In 1879, in psychology’s first experiment, _______ and his students measured the time lag between hearing a ball hit a platform and pressing a key.
Wilhelm Wundt
68
In the early twentieth century, _______ redefined psychology as “the science of observable behavior.”
John B. Watson
69
A psychologist treating emotionally troubled adolescents at a local mental health agency is most likely to be a(n)
clinical psychologist.
70
A mental health professional with a medical degree who can prescribe medication is a _______.
psychiatrist
71
A psychologist doing research from the _______ perspective might be interested in how our blood chemistry affects our moods and motives.
neuroscience
72
How can critical thinking help you evaluate claims in the media, even if you’re not a scientific expert on the issue?
Critical thinking teaches us to look for evidence instead of relying on our intuition, which is often wrong. In evaluating a claim in the media, look for any signs of scientific evidence, preferably from several studies. Ask the following questions: Are claims based on scientific findings? Have several studies replicated the findings and confirmed them? Are any experts cited? If so, research their background. Are they affiliated with a credible university, college, or institution? Have they conducted or written about scientific research?
73
Nature is to nurture as
biology is to experience.
74
“Nurture works on what nature provides.” Describe what this means, using your own words.
The environment (nurture) has an influence on us, but that influence is limited by our biology (nature). Nature and nurture interact. People predisposed to be very tall (nature), for example, are unlikely to become Olympic gymnasts, no matter how hard they work (nurture).
75
_______ _______ is the principle that our mind processes information on two tracks at the same time—one with our full awareness and the other outside of our awareness.
dual processing
76
Martin Seligman and other researchers who explore various aspects of human flourishing refer to their field of study as _______ _______.
positive psychology
77
_______ _______ refers to our tendency to perceive events as predictable and obvious after the fact.
hindsight bias
78
As scientists, psychologists
put competing ideas to the test and collect evidence.
79
Theory-based predictions are called _______.
hypotheses
80
Which of the following is NOT one of the descriptive methods psychologists use to study behavior?
A case study
Naturalistic observation
Correlational research
A phone survey
correlational research
81
You wish to survey a group of people who will reflect the views of the country’s entire adult population. To do this, you will need to question a _______ sample of the population, in which each person has an equal chance of being chosen.
random (representative)
82
A study finds that the more childbirth training classes women attend, the less pain medication they require during childbirth. This finding can be stated as a _______ (positive/negative) correlation.
negative
83
Knowing that two events correlate provides
a basis for prediction
84
To explain behaviors and clarify cause and effect, psychologists use _______.
experiments
85
To test the effect of a new drug on depression, researchers randomly assign people to control and experimental groups. People in the control group take a pill that contains no medication. This pill is a _______.
placebo
86
In a double-blind procedure,
neither the participants nor the researchers know who is in the experimental group or control group.
87
A researcher wants to know whether noise level affects workers’ blood pressure. In one group, she varies the level of noise in the environment and records participants’ blood pressure. In this experiment, the level of noise is the _______ _______.
independent variable
88
The laboratory environment is designed to
re-create psychological forces under controlled conditions.
89
In defending their experimental research with animals, psychologists have noted that
* animals’ biology and behavior can tell us much about our own.
* animals are fascinating creatures and worthy of study.
* animal experiments sometimes help animals as well as humans.
90
Which attitude has helped to make modern science possible?
humility
91
Mr. and Mrs. Guerra are concerned that their daughter may be suffering from an eating disorder. To help diagnose and understand her condition better, they would benefit from making an appointment with a ______ psychologist.
clinical
92
Owen is asked if he can identify a suspect in a lineup. He thinks his fear at the time of the crime may have impaired his memory for what the perpetrator looked like. This hypothesis would MOST likely be tested by a _____ psychologist.
cognitive
93
In the 1990s, the U. S. Army used the recruiting slogan, "Be all that you can be." This catchphrase BEST reflects the _____ perspective in psychology.
humanistic
94
Dr. Rowan attempts to help his patients uncover unconscious motives and conflicts. Dr. Rowan appears to reflect the _____ approach in psychology,
Freudian
95
Dr. Williams is a counseling psychologist. Dr. Xavier is a clinical psychologist. Dr. Yeager is a psychiatrist. Which statement is TRUE?
Dr. Xavier treats psychological disorders
96
Dr. Iverson states that she teaches a course at a community college that examines "how people grow and change from the cradle to the grave." The title of the course is MOST likely "_____ Psychology."
developmental
97
_____ psychology is the scientific study of optimal human functioning. This field aims to discover and promote the strengths that allow people and communities to thrive.
Positive
98
Many people are guided by "gut feelings" or an "instinctive awareness"; that is, they are guided by:
intuition
99
Perhaps the broadest, most integrative approach in psychology is the _____ perspective.
biopsychosocial
100
Dr. Jensen is organizing and evaluating the evidence related to aggression in children. Dr. Jensen is engaged in _____ thinking.
critical
101
When something extraordinary happens, such as when one individual wins the lottery twice, people tend to see a pattern, such as a streak of unbelievable luck. In actuality, the two winnings are:
random events
102
You and your best friend are discussing fossil fuel usage, and your friend says that carbon emissions are up 15 percent. You ask where he got that number from because you:
are engaging in critical thinking.
103
Mona remarks that she is interested in the effects of happiness on physical health and mental well-being. Mona's interest reflects the _____ psychology approach.
positive
104
Craig demonstrates _____ thinking by not blindly accepting arguments and conclusions from others. Instead, he analyzes the assumptions behind any claims, looks into possible hidden values, and tries to determine if conclusions are warranted.
critical
105
Dr. Maturin, a psychology professor, encourages his students to always consider alternative explanations for research findings. One student raises her hand and asks him, "Do you mean you want us to be _____ thinkers?" Dr. Maturin replies, "Yes."
critical
106
Talia has just finished reading an article discussing the traits—such as courage—that allow firefighters to remain strikingly calm even when faced with overwhelming stress. This article was likely published in which journal?
Positive Psychology
107
The self-correcting process psychologists use to ask questions and obtain answers is called:
the scientific method
108
The direction of the relationship between two variables is given by a correlation coefficient's ______; the strength of the relationship is given by the coefficient's _____.
sign; absolute value
109
In an experiment, the process of random _____ ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being in either the control group or the experimental group.
assignment
110
What strategy did students use to successfully learn 40 new Swahili words?
repeated testing
111
Noted developmental psychologist Jean Piaget based his theory in large part on in-depth examinations of his own three children. Piaget's work exemplifies the _____ research method.
case study
112
A researcher finds a correlation of −.51. Which pair of variables is the researcher MOST likely investigating?
alcohol consumption and GPA
113
In an experiment, the values of the _____ variable are purposely selected by the researcher.
independent
114
In a typical experimental session, informed consent:
takes place before the experimental procedure begins
115
Dr. Comeaux decides to conduct a survey of her class to determine whether the number of breaks is sufficient for a three-hour class period. She assigns each of her 40 students a number and arbitrarily selects 20 using a computer program. Using the language of research methodology, Dr. Comeaux's sample is both a representative and a(n) _____ sample.
random
116
There have been reports that patients taking a smoking-cessation medication have experienced reduced anxiety. While there seems to be a correlation between taking the drug and decreased anxiety, the pharmaceutical company that makes the medication cannot publicly market their drug as an antianxiety treatment because there is NOT:
necessarily a cause-and-effect relationship between the drug and anxiety
117
Which method offers the only reliable way of assessing whether caffeine consumption causes athletic performance to be improved?
the experiment
118
Preparing for a psychology midterm, Anita uses a technique called _____ practice when she spreads out her study sessions over a week.
spaced
119
Roger suggests that, because children are more impulsive than adults, they will have more difficulty controlling their anger. Roger's prediction regarding anger management is an example of a(n):
hypothesis
120
At a DUI checkpoint, some cars are stopped at random, but many others are not stopped. Using the terminology of psychological research, the cars that are stopped may be considered a _____ of all the cars that pass by the checkpoint.
sample
121
Allanah is preparing to conduct a perceptual experiment as part of her Ph.D. dissertation work. She arbitrarily puts 30 participants in the experimental group, and 30 in the control group. What is Allanah doing, and why?
Allanah is performing random assignment to ensure that participant characteristics are equal across groups.
122
Dr. Ingram deliberately varied the imageability of items on a list, then later measured participants' recall of the items. Dr. Ingram conducted a(n) _____ study.
experimental
123
A researcher might expect a(n) _____ correlation between responsibility scores and GPA.
positive
124
Dr. James found a correlation of +0.81 between scores on a measure of obesity and scores on a measure of the consumption of fast foods. This would be considered a _____ correlation
direct
125
DeAndre is recording instances of physical aggression among children in a schoolyard at recess. He is undertaking:
naturalistic observation
126
Brett is about to design his first drug-treatment study. He chooses the double-blind procedure to minimize outcome differences between experimental and control conditions that could be attributed to:
the placebo effect
127
In a social psychology experiment, one group of participants is reminded of a social stereotype they are likely to hold; another is not reminded. All participants then interact with a member of the stereotyped group, and the nature of their interactions is recorded. Which statement is TRUE?
The reminded group receives the treatment and is the experimental group
128
Thomas Bouchard's research on identical twins reared apart revealed that:
despite being reared differently, they're often strikingly alike
129
If the heritability of intelligence is fifty percent, this means:
genetic influence explains fifty percent of the observed variation among people
130
Behavioral geneticists focusing on the molecular approach:
* may open the door to a realm of ethical dilemmas
* study chromosomes using DNA scanning and genome sequencing
* strove to reveal at-risk populations for some of the most prevalent diseases today
