Chapter 1: Research Methodology Flashcards
(142 cards)
1
Q
Definition of psychology
A
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes (non-human animals and humans).
Meaning:
The scientific part of the definition implicates non-pop psychology. If a theory or study must be scientific, it must be supported by empirical evidence, it must be falsifiable, and there should be previous attempts conducted (to test the theory in question or replicate the study).
2
Q
Nomothetic approach
A
a quantitative study in which a universal law derives.
3
Q
Idiographic approach
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opposite of nomothetic approach – analysis of a phenomenon without trying to derive universal laws.
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Quantitative research
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a research method in which the result is numerically expressed laws (universal laws – universally applicable) that characterize the behavior of large groups of individuals.
5
Q
Qualitative research
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an in-depth study of a particular phenomenon – quality over quantity.
6
Q
Experimental studies (a type of quantitative research)
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the simplest study that incorporates IV and DV. Studies in which the independent variables are directly manipulated and the effects on the dependent variable are examined
7
Q
Correlational studies (a type of quantitative research)
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studies in which the investigator analyzes the relationships among variables that were in place before the study, without manipulating those variables.
8
Q
Descriptive studies (a type of quantitative research)
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studies that are sometimes used to conduct a broad investigation of a phenomenon before going into the specifics, where the DV and IV are not taken into consideration – it is a sociological approach to investigate a phenomenon typically in the form of a survey.
9
Q
Artifacts
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unforeseen variables that should be systematically varied as to not affect the outcome.
10
Q
Behavior
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everything we do that can be directly observed.
11
Q
Mental processes
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The thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but that cannot be observed directly.
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Q
Bias
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prejudiced by preconceived beliefs, etc – either by the researcher or the participant[s].
13
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Credibility
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the degree to which the results of a study can be trusted to reflect the reality.
14
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Empirical evidence
A
scientific evidence obtained by careful observation and experimentation
15
Q
Falsification
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the act of falsifying information or a theory or hyptheses.
16
Q
Generalizability (qualitative research)
A
the extent to which the results of the study can be applied beyond the sample and the settings used in the study itself:
- sample-to-population generalization (selecting a sample that represents the target audience)
- theoretical generalization (generalizing particular interpretations or findings to a broader theory.)
- case-to-case generalization/transferability (generalizations made by researchers and readers of the research, in which they may be able to infer that the results of the research are applicable to a different setting or group of people)
17
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Representativeness
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the degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or reflects the essential characteristics of the target population
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Target population
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the group of people to which the findings of the study are expected to be generalized – the recipients.
19
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Variable
A
a factor that can change in an experiment (changed by the researcher or changed by another variable {DV and IV])
20
Q
Independent variable (IV)
A
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
21
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Dependent variable (DV)
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the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
22
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Confounding variables (CV)
A
extraneous variables that must be controlled by the researcher and could influence any change in the Dependent Variables (DV) (additional variables that can potentially distort the relationship between the IV and DV – either they must be eliminated or kept constant throughout the experiment). These can reduce the ability of researchers to determine a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variable.
23
Q
Replication
A
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
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Construct
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any theoretically defined variable – an area of focus for a study.
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Operationalization
expressing a construct in terms of observable behavior. It is the process by which a researcher defines how a concept is measured, observed, or manipulated within a particular study. What method that is chosen to study a construct – how the research of the construct is carried out.
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Sample
A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole.
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Sampling technique
the technique applied for gathering participants.
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Stratified sampling (quantitative sampling technique) (probability sampling)
sampling technique where the researcher decides the essential characteristics the sample has to reflect. Then they study the way the distribution of these characteristics in the target population and then they recruit their participants in a way that keeps the same proportions.
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Self-selected sampling (quantitative sampling technique)
a sampling method made up of volunteers.
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Random sampling (quantitative sampling technique) (probability sampling)
a randomized sampling technique that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
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Convenience sampling (quantitative and qualitative sampling technique) (non-probability sampling)
recruit participants that are more easily available
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Experimental design
the organization of groups and conditions in an experiment.
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Independent measures design (experimental design)
involves random allocation of participants into groups and a comparison between these groups
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Matched pairs design (experimental design)
involves the allocation of participants into groups and a comparison between these groups. It is different from independent measures design because researchers use matching to form the groups – the sample is not random.
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Repeated measures design
involves comparing conditions rather than groups of participants.
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Order effects
order effects refer to differences in research participants' responses that result from the order (e.g., first, second, third) in which the experimental materials are presented to them.
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Counterbalancing
a technique used to deal with order effects when using a repeated measures design. With counterbalancing, the participant sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order. This is in order to test whether the order affects the result.
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Matching variable
when conducting an experiment and there is a confounding variable that may influence the results. Therefore, that variable must be checked so that participants are equal in that particular skill after which they are separated. It is a controlled variable.
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Participant variability
the differences between the groups before the experiment initiates.
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Causality/causation
the demonstration of how one variable influences another.
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Correlation
a measure of a linear relationship between two variables (without manipulating a variable). It is not the same as causality as the correlation between two variables does not always mean either one is causing the other to increase or decrease. Correlations cannot be interpreted in terms of causation. The correlation can either have a positive correlation (one causes the other to increase), a zero correlation, or a negative correlation.
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The third variable problem
the variable that possibly exists and correlates both variables and explains the correlation between them.
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Effect size
a statistical concept that measures the strength of the relationship between two variables on a numeric scale. It is the absolute value of the correlation coefficient (the number from -1 to 1 – -1 and 1 meaning the two variables are in agreement (decreasing and increasing) whereas 0 indicates zero agreement)
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Statistical significance
the likelihood that a relationship between two or more variables is caused by something other than chance.
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Curvilinear relationships
the relationship between two correlational variables can be non-linear (e.g. increasing and later decreasing or vice versa)
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Spurious correlations
a mathematical relationship in which two or more events or variables are associated but not causally related, due to either coincidence or the presence of a certain third, unseen factor.
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Validity
determinants of how valid methods and results from a study are.
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Construct validity (a type of validity)
construct validity characterizes the quality of operationalizations
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Internal validity (a type of validity)
internal validity characterizes the methodological quality of the experiment.
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external validity (a type of validity)
external validity characterizes the generalizability of findings of the experiment.
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Population validity (a type of external validity)
population validity refers to the extent to which the findings of an experiment can be generalized from the sample to the target population.
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Ecological validity (a type of external validity)
ecological validity refers to the extent to which findings of an experiment can be generalized from the experiment to other settings or situations.
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Double-blind design (a type of experimental design)
a design in which information that could potentially introduce bias is withheld both from the participants and the conductors of the experiment.
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Quasi-experiment
different from the regular “true” experiment in that the allocation of the groups is not done randomly. Cause-and-effect inferences cannot be made (IV change).
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Field experiment
experiments conducted in a real-life setting.
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Natural experiment
an experiment conducted in a real-life setting. Differs from the field experiment as the researcher has no control over the IV as it occurred naturally.
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Priming
activating particular representation or associations in the memory of participants just before the experiment.
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Demand characteristics (participant bias)
when participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and subconsciously change their behavior to fit that interpretation.
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Expectancy effect (demand characteristic)
when a participant acts a certain way because they wish to do what the researcher asks.
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Reactivity (demand characteristic)
the act of behaving differently because the participant knows they are being observed.
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Screw you effect (demand characteristic)
when a participant tries to figure out the researcher’s hypotheses only to destroy the credibility of the study.
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Social desirability effect (demand characteristic)
when participants react in a certain way that they believe is considered socially acceptable because they know that they are being observed.
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Researcher bias
when the beliefs or opinions of the researcher influence the outcomes or conclusions of the research.
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Confirmation bias (researcher bias)
when a researcher searches for or interprets information in a way that confirms a preexisting belief or hypothesis of their own belief.
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Publication bias (researcher bias)
when studies are only published if they have results. Whether the publisher believes a study is liable for publication.
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Funding bias (researcher bias)
who funds the study? – companies can fund studies for their own benefit.
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P-hacking (researcher bias)
when a researcher attempts at finding patterns in their collected data for the purpose of presenting the data as statistically significant, all without a specific hypothesis
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Ethics (validity)
whether certain things are acceptable in order to find the desired result: is it okay to lie? to misinform? deceive?
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Fatigue effects (order effect)
when participants get tired or bored from taking part in several conditions of the same experiment, making them lose motivation or simply bad at concentrating, all of which can influence the result.
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Interference effects (order effect)
a phenomenon of human memory involving the learning of new material where the learning of new information or behavior interacts with “old learning” or memories, thoughts, and behaviors that come from past learning, and interferes with the acquisition or comprehension of the new information.
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Practice effects (order effect)
when participants improve as a result of doing the same task repeatedly. E.g. if researchers were to observe participants solving the same problems under different conditions (such as adding music), the results will not be accurate as the participant is simply becoming better at solving the problem.
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Cause-and-effect inferences
changing the IV which affects the DV
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Selection (threat to internal validity)
when groups are not equivalent at the beginning of an experiment: they differ in some variable (that is not the planned IV) and therefore it cannot be determined whether the post-experiment differences (as a result) reflect the influence of the IV or this other variable. Happens when group allocation was not entirely random.
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History (threat to internal validity)
outside events that happen to participants in the course of the experiment. This can affect the DV.
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Maturation (threat to internal validity)
when participants go through natural developmental processes in the course of an experiment (e.g. fatigue or growth).
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Testing effect (threat to internal validity)
refers to the higher probability of being able to recall an item when actively retrieving the item from memory, rather than carrying out repetitive studies of the item. That the first measurement of the DV may affect the second (and subsequent) measurements.
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Instrumentation (threat to internal validity)
when the instrument (often wise the researcher) measuring the DV changes slightly between measurements. E.g. the difference in time making the instrument more tired or when an area of observation is crowded.
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Regression to the mean (threat to internal validity)
a statistical phenomenon stating that data that is extremely higher or lower than the mean will likely be closer to the mean if it is measured a second time. It is due to random variance, or chance, which affects the sample.
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Experimental mortality (threat to internal validity)
when some participants drop out during an experiment, which can become a problem if dropouts are not random. This can also affect the equivalence of the experiment.
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Demand characteristics (threat to internal validity)
when participants understand the purpose of the experiment and change their behavior according to the interpretation.
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Experimenter bias (threat to internal validity)
when the researcher unintentionally and subconsciously influences the results of a study due to preconceived ideas, information, or beliefs.
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Triangulation (credibility in qualitative research)
a combination of different approaches to collecting and interpreting data – measuring the same behavior using multiple methods or viewpoints to help validate the results or findings.
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Methodological triangulation
applying different methods to a study in order to test the credibility of the results.
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Data triangulation
incorporating different sources in the study to help analyze the results – e.g. studying a document mentioned by the participant or documents that will enhance the understanding of observations.
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Researcher triangulation
when results from observations and interpretations from different researchers are unanimous.
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Establishment of rapport (credibility in qualitative research)
establishing a trustworthy relationship between the researcher and participant to ensure honest answers.
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Iterative questioning (credibility in qualitative research)
repeating and possibly rephrasing a question in order to get a deeper insight into a sensitive phenomenon.
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Reflexivity (credibility in qualitative research)
the reflection made by researchers on their own bias:
- epistemological reflexivity (reflecting on strengths and limitations of the method)
- personal reflexivity (acknowledging the influence of personal beliefs, experiences, and expectations)
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Credibility checks (credibility in qualitative research)
checking the accuracy of transcripts, notes, etc. by asking the participants to read them and confirm that they say what they meant or did.
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Thick/rich descriptions
explaining not only observations of behavior but also the context.
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Acquiescence bias (participant bias)
the tendency to give positive answers whatever the question
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Social desirability bias (participant bias)
the tendency for a participant to give answers that they believe are socially acceptable.
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Dominant respondent bias (participant bias)
occurs in a group interview setting where one participant influences the behavior and responses of the others through their assertiveness.
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Sensitivity bias (participant bias)
the tendency for a participant to answer questions honestly, but distort their responses to questions on sensitive subjects (at an attempt at hiding secrets).
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Leading question bias (researcher bias)
when respondents in an interview are inclined to answer in a specific way because the wording of the question encourages them to do so.
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Question order bias (researcher bias)
occurs when responses to one question influence the participant's responses to the following questions.
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Sampling bias (researcher bias)
occurs when the sample is not adequate for the aims of the research.
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Biased reporting (researcher bias)
occurs when some findings of a study are not equally represented in the report.
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Quota sampling (qualitative sampling technique)
deciding prior to the beginning of research how many people to include in the sample and what characteristics they should have.
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Purposive sampling (qualitative sampling technique) (non-probability sampling)
similar to quota sampling, however, the sample size is not defined.
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Theoretical sampling (qualitative sampling technique)
a type of purposive sampling in which the sampling stops when the point of data saturation is reached.
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Data saturation
when no new information is obtained from new participants.
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Snowball sampling (qualitative sampling technique) (non-probability sampling)
inviting a small sample who are then asked to invite other people they know.
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Laboratory observation (qualitative method)
the observation of behavior in an artificial setting.
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Naturalistic observation (qualitative method)
observation carried out in a naturally occurring setting.
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Overt observation (qualitative method)
observation method in which the participants are aware of the researcher observing them.
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Covert observation (qualitative method)
observation method in which the researcher does not inform the participants about reasons for their presence, as to avoid participant bias.
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Participant observation (qualitative method)
observation method in which the researcher becomes part of the observed group.
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Structured observation (qualitative method)
observation method in which the information is recorded systematically and in a standardized way. Usually, the researcher has a checklist.
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Unstructured observation (qualitative method)
Observation method in which the researcher notes whatever behavior they find noteworthy.
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Structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews (qualitative method)
interviews where the questions are in a specific order and are asked respectively, specific questions but not order, or a mostly participant-driven interview.
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Inductive content analysis (qualitative method)
Inductive content analysis is a qualitative method of content analysis that researchers use to develop theory and identify themes by studying documents, recordings and other printed and verbal material.
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Alternative hypotheses
(H1) predicts an effect (meaning, a manipulated variable is expected to cause some change in the measured variable) -- that there is a statistically significant relationship between two variables
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Null hypothesis
(H0) predicts no effect (meaning, a manipulated variable is expected to cause no change in the measured variable) -- that there is no statistical significance between the two variables.
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Quantitative variables
refer to quantities that can be measured, such as height, talkativeness, levels of depression, memory capacity, and so on.
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Categorial variables
refer to qualities that can be used to assign categories to individuals, such as nationality, grade level, sex, gender, ethnicity, and so on.
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Operationalized variables
refer to how you will define and measure a specific variable as it is used in your study.
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Non-probability and probability sampling
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the odds of any member being selected for a sample cannot be calculated. It’s the opposite of probability sampling, where you can calculate the odds. In addition, probability sampling involves random selection, while non-probability sampling does not–it relies on the subjective judgment of the researcher.
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Systematic sampling (probability sampling)
similar to random sampling, but the sample members from a larger population are selected according to a random starting point but with a fixed, periodic sampling interval - meaning that it is systematic and not completely random.
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Single-blind design (a type of experimental design)
leaves the participant unaware of whether s/he is in the experimental or control group and therefore participant expectancies have less influence on the results.
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Standardization
ensures that all conditions are the same for all participants.
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Random assignment
Random assignment refers to the use of chance procedures in psychology experiments to ensure that each participant has the same opportunity to be assigned to any given group. Study participants are randomly assigned to different groups, such as the experimental group, or treatment group.
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Informed consent
a participant needs to be informed of the aims and objectives of the research and what it involves, and they need to give their consent to participate.
- the study itself
- the researchers and supervisors
- the right to withdrawal from the study
- confidentiality and anonymity
- accessing results.
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Participant protection
participants must be protected from physical and mental harm. This means you must not embarrass, frighten, offend, or harm participants.
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Debriefing
When the research is over, every effort must be made to return participants to their original state, so that they are not changed in any lasting way by participating in the research, which is done by a simple explanation of the research.
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Control and treatment groups
A control group is used as a baseline measure. The control group is identical to all other items or subjects that you are examining with the exception that it does not receive the treatment or the experimental manipulation that the treatment group receives.
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Reification (quantitative research)
when abstract variables are treated as though they are real when in reality they are simply constructs of abstract ideas.
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Co-variables
the variables in correlational research, which are neither independent nor dependent.
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Theory triangulation
Theory triangulation interprets and applies research conclusions using multiple theoretical viewpoints or approaches.
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Ethnography
the systematic study of people and cultures with the intent of exploring cultural phenomena where the researcher observes society from the point of view of the subject of the study.
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Longitudinal study
an observational research method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a period of time.
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Transferability
is a process performed by readers of research, where if there are enough similarities between the two situations, readers may be able to infer that the results of the research would be the same or similar in their own situation.
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Reductionism and holism
Reductionism is when complex behaviors are separated into simpler components, and holism looks at it as a whole.
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Reliability
the consistency of a research study or measuring test.
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Internal reliability
the extent to which a measure is consistent within itself – consistency across items, e.g. ensuring test questions are similarly difficult.
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External reliability
the extent to which a measure varies from one use to another.
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Inter-rater reliability (external consistency)
consistency across different researchers, measuring the same items as consistently as possible, e.g. ensuring examiners mark exam questions in a similar way.
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Test-retest reliability (external consistency)
consistency over time, from one test to the next, e.g. ensuring exams are similarly challenging year to year
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Focus group
Semi-structured interviews, in which a small group of people discusses questions with each other, possibly influencing one another with their personal opinions.
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Case studies
Case studies are in-depth investigations that focus on a particular phenomenon, group, or individual through different research methods. It is often longitudinal and does not focus on generalizability. They give insight into phenomena and can as such help contradict existing theories.
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Experience sampling method
an intensive longitudinal research methodology that involves asking participants to report on their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and/or environment on multiple occasions over time. Participants usually receive text messages for when to write.
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Sociometry
a method used for revealing the structure of social relationships in a group.
