Chapter 1- The Cell Flashcards
Learn about cells(prokaryotes and eukaryotes), and viruses (230 cards)
1
Q
What is the cell theory tenets?
A
- All living things are composed of cells.
- The cell is the basic functional unit of life.
- Cells arise only from other cells.
- Cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA.
2
Q
What is a virion?
A
A virion is a virus progeny that is found outside the cell(extracellular).
3
Q
Are virus considered living?
A
No, they violate tenets of cell theory such as cells arise from other cells and carry genetic information in the form of DNA. Viruses can only replicate by invading organisms, and some viruses carry genetic information in the form of RNA.
4
Q
Prokaryates- unicellular or multicellular?
A
Unicellular
5
Q
Eukaryotes- unicellular or multicellular?
A
Can be both
6
Q
What allows for compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells?
A
Membrane bound organelles.
7
Q
Membranes of eukaryotic cells consist of a?
A
Phospholipid bilayer
8
Q
What allows for the diffusion of molecules throughout the cell?
A
Cytosol
9
Q
Eukaryotes reproduce by?
A
Mitosis
10
Q
The nucleus is surrounded by the?
A
Nuclear membrane(nuclear envelope) a double membrane that maintains a nuclear environment seperate and distinct from the cytoplasm.
11
Q
Protoplasm
A
Everything in the cell membrane.
Divided into cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.
12
Q
Cytoplasm
A
Everthing inside the cell membrane except the nucleus.
Contains cytosol and organelles .
13
Q
Cytosol
A
Area of cytoplasm that is not held by organelles.
Cytoplasm minus organelles
14
Q
What structure in a eukaryotic cell allows for selective two way exchange of material between the cytoplasm and the nucleus?
A
Nuclear pores in the nuclear membrane.
15
Q
Coding regions in DNA are called?
A
Genes
16
Q
Does transcription or translation occur in the nuclues?
A
Transcription( the formation of hnRNA from DNA, which is subsequently processed to form mRNA.
17
Q
Transcription or translation, which occurs outside the nucleus?
A
Translation(the formation of a peptide from mRNA occurs on ribosomes)
18
Q
What is the subsection of the nucleus called?
A
Nucleolus
19
Q
What is synthesized in the nucleolus?
A
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
20
Q
How many membranes does the mitchondria have?
A
2 the inner membrane and outer membrane.
21
Q
What does the outer membrane of the mitchondria do?
A
Serves as a barrier between the cytosol and the inner environment of the mitchondria.
22
Q
What does the inner membrane of the mitchondria do?
A
Contains the molecules and enzymes of the electron transport chain.
23
Q
The inner membrane is arranged into?
A
Foldings called cristae which are highly convoluted structures that increase the surface area available for electron transport enzymes
24
Q
The space between the inner membrane and outer membrane?
A
Intermembrane space
25
Space inside the inner membrane?
Mitchondrial matrix
26
How do protons flow in the mitchondria to establish the prton motive force?
Protons are pumped out the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space creating a gradient.
27
How do protons flow back down fron the intermembrane space back into the mitochondrial matrix to generate ATP during oxidative phosphoylation?
Protons flow through ATP synthase
28
Are mitochondria semiautonomus?
Yes, they contain some of their own genes and replicate independently of the nucleus via binary fission.
29
cytoplasmic or extranuclear inheritance
The transmission of genetic material independent of the nucleus. (Ex. Mitochondria)
30
Serial endosymbiosis theory
Membrane bound organelles were formed by the engulfing of one prokaryote by another and the establishment of a symbiotic relationship. (Ex. Mitochondria, chloroplasts, flagella)
31
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death
32
Mitochondria can START apoptosis by
Releasing enzymes from the electron transport chain.
33
Whuch organelle contains hydrolytic enzymes which can breakdown many different substances.
Lysosome
34
Hydrolytic enzymes
Any of the enzymes or catalysts that act and behave like a hydrolase.A hydrolase is an enzyme that speeds up the hydrolysis of a chemical bond.
35
Hydrolysis
Adding water to a chemical bond to break it.
| A–B + H2O → A–OH + B–H
36
Which organelle breaks down substances ingested by endocytosis and cellular waste products
Lysosomes
37
Lysosomes often function in conjunction with
Endosomes
38
Endosomes
collection of organelles that function in transport, package, and sort cell material travelling to and from the membrane.
39
Autolysis
Destruction of a cell through the release of enzymes.
40
When a lysosome releases its hydrolytic enzymes leading directly to the degradation of cellular compenents, is it autolysis or apoptosis?
Both autolysis and apotosis.
41
When a mitchondria releases enzymes from the electron transport is is autolysis or apoptosis?
Apoptosis
42
Which organelle is contiguous with the nuclear envelope?
Endoplasmic reticulum
43
How many varieties of endoplasmic reticulum are there?
2: Smooth ER and Rough ER
44
Which organelle is studded with ribosomes, which permit the translation of proteins destined for secretion directly into its lumen.
Rough ER
45
Which organelle is used primarily for lipid synthesis(such as the phospholipids in the cell membrane) and the detoxification of certain drugs and poisons. Lacks ribosomes.
Smooth ER
46
Which organelle transports proteins from the Rough ER to the golgi in vesicles.
Smooth ER
47
Which organelle modifies cellular products by the addition of groups like carbohydrates, phosphates, and sulfates or by the introduction of signal sequences, which direct the delivery of the product to a specific cellular location.
Golgi apparatus
48
After modification and sorting in the golgi, cellular products are repackaged in what to be sent to the correct cellular location?
Vesicles
49
Secretory vesicle merges with cell membrane and its contents are released.
Exocytosis
50
The breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones
Catabolism
51
the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy
Anabolism
52
The catabolic process by which fatty acid molecules are broken down. Occurs in both mitochondria and peroxisomes
Beta-oxidation
53
Which organelle contains hydrogen peroxide, primary function is beta oxidation, and participates in the synthesis of phospholipids
Peroxisomes
54
Peroxisomes contain enzymes involved in which pathway?
Pentose phosphate pathway
55
What provides structure to the cell and helps maintain its shape along with a conduit for the transport of materials.
Cytoskeleton
56
What are the three components(materials) of the cytoskeleton?
Microfilaments
Microtubules
Intermediate filaments
57
Microfilaments
Solid polymerized rods of actin (filaments)
58
Actin filaments are resistant to
Compression and fracture
59
Actin filaments can use ATP to genetate force for movement(ex.muscle contraction) by interacting with
Myosin
60
the cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells.
Cytokinesis
61
Indentation of the cell's surface that begins the progression of cleavage, by which animal and some algal cells undergo cytokinesis
Cleavage furrow
62
Which microfilaments play a role in cytokinesis by pinching of the connecton between daughter cells.
Actin filament ring
63
Hollow polymers of tubulin proteins.
Microtubules
64
Microtubules extend throughout the cell providing pathways along which motor proteins such as
Kinesin and dyenein can carry vesicles
65
Cilia and flagella are motile structures composed of ?
Microtubules
66
Projections from a cell that are primarily involved in the movement of materials along the surface of a cell.
Cilia
67
Structure involved in the movement of the cell itself.
Flagella
68
9+2 structure
Nine pairs of microtubules forming an outer ring with two microtubules in the center
69
Cilia and flagella share the same 9+2 structure in
| Prokaryotes or eukaryotes?
Eukaryotes
70
Centrioles are found in a region of the cell called the ?
Centrosome
71
Organizing centers for microtubules and are structured as nine triplets of microtubules with a hollow center.
Centrioles
72
Organize the mitotic spindle by migrating to opposite poles of a dividing cell
Centrioles
73
The microtubules coming out from the centrioles attach to the chromosomes _____ to separate sister chromatids.
Kinetochores
74
Diverse group of filamentous proteins which includes keratin, vimentin, and lamins.
Intermediate filaments
75
Filaments involved in cell-cell adhesion or maintenance of the overall integrity of the cytoskeleton.
Intermediate filaments
76
Filaments that are able to withstand a tremendous amount of tension, and help anchor other organelles.
Intermediate filaments
77
The identity of the intermembrane filament proteins within a cell is specific to the?
Cell and tissue type
78
Four tissue types
Epithelial
Connective
Muscular
Nervous
79
Parenchyma
Functional part of an organ
80
Tissue that covers the body and lines its cavities providing protection from pathogens and desiccation
Epithelial tissue
81
Epithelial cells are tightly joined to each other and an underlying layer of connective tissue known as
Basement membrane
82
Which tissue is highly diverse and serves numerous functions(absorption, secretion, sensation) depending on the identity of the organ
Epithelial tissue
83
Which cells constitute the parenchyma?
Epithelial
84
These cells are often polarized with one side facing the lumen and the other interacting with blood vessrls and structural cells.
Epithelial cells
85
Epithelial can be classified based on?
Number of layers and cell shape
86
One layer of cells in epithelial
Simple epithelia
87
Multiple layers of cells in epithelial?
Stratified epithelia
88
Appear to have multiple layers in epithelial due to diffrences in cell height but are, in reality, only one layer.
Pseudostratified
89
Cell shapes
Cuboidal
Columnar
Squamous- flat and scalelike
90
Tissue that supports the body and provides a framework for the epithelial cells to carry out their functions
Connective tissue
91
Part of a tissue or organ with a structural or connective role
Stroma
92
Bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue, blood are examples of what tissue.
Connective tissue
93
Most cells in connective tissues produce and secrete materials such as
Collagen and elastin to form the extracellular matrix ?
94
Which organisms genetic material is organized into a singular circular molecule of DNA and do not contain membrane bound organelles.
Prokaryotes
95
Prokaryotes DNA can be found in the?
Nucleoid region
96
What are the three domains of life?
Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya
97
Archaea contain genes and metabolic pathways that are more similar to?
Eukaryotes than bacteria
98
A microorganism, especially an archaean, that lives in conditions of extreme temperature, acidity, alkalinity, or chemical concentration.
Extremophile
99
The synthesis of organic compounds by using energy derived from reactions involving inorganic chemicals, typically in the absence of sunlight.
Chemosynthesis
100
while some archea are photosynthetic many are chemosynthetic and use inorganic compounds such as ?
Sulfur and nitrogen based compounds such as ammonia
101
Eukaryotes and Archea share common similarities such as?
starting translation with methionine
similar RNA polymerases
associate DNA with histones
102
Bacteria and Archea share similarities such as
single circular chromosome
reproduce by binary fission( but can also bud)
overall structure
103
Can have pili, fimbriae, or flagella.
Prokaryotes
104
Can have cillia, flagella.
Eukaryotes
105
Structure similar to cillia and used primarily for adhesion by prokaryotes.
Fimbriae
106
True or False. Bacterial flagella and eukaryotic flagella are different enough that antibacterial vaccines can target bacterial flagella.
True
107
which is smaller eukaryotic ribosome or bacterial ribosome?
Bacterial ribosome are significantly smaller and many antibiotics target this.
108
Some bacteria are mutalistic symbiotes meaning
Both human and bacteria benefit from the relationship.
109
What are some examples of vitamins that bacteria produce in the human gut?
Vitamin K and biotin(Vitamin B7)
110
Bacteria that provide no advantage or benefit to the host, but rather cause disease.
Pathogen or parasite
111
Pathogenic bacteria may live?
Intracellulary or extracellulary
112
Which vitamin is required for production of the plasma proteins necessary for blood clotting.
Vitamin K
113
Spherical bacteria
Cocci
114
Rod shaped bacteria
Bacilli
115
Spiral shaped bacteria
Spirilli
116
Very few pathogenic bacteria are what shape?
Spiral
117
Bacteria that require oxygen for metabolism.
Obligate aerobes
118
Bacteria that uses fermentation or some other form of cellular metabolism that does not require oxygen
Anaerobes
119
Bacteria that cannot survive in an oxygen containing environment because it leads to the production of reactive oxygen containg radicals.
Obligate anaerobes
120
Bacteria that can toggle between metabolic processes, using oxygen if present and switching to anaerobic metabolism if it is not?
Faculative anaerobes
121
Bacteria that are unable to oxygen for metabolism, but are not harmed by its presence in the environment.
Aerotolerant anerobes
122
Cell wall and cell membrane are known as the?
Envelope
123
The outer barrier of a prokaryotic cell.
Cell wall
124
The next layer after the cell wall in prokaryotes.
Cell membrane
125
Two types of cell walls in bateria.
Gram positive and gram negative
126
How to identify type of bacteria walls.
Gram staining
127
How do you know if a bacteria is gram positive?
If the bacteria cell wall absorbs the crystal violet stain it will appear purple.
128
How do you know if a bacteria is gram negative?
If the cell wall does not absorb the crystal violet stain, but absorbs safranin counterstain it will appear pink- red
129
How does gram staining work?
Gram positive bacteria have thick peptidoglycan cell walls so the crystal violet stays on while gram negative cell wall are thin so the first dye rinses of while the safranin stays.
130
One or more glycosaminoglycan chains are attached to the protein
Proteoglycan
131
oligosaccharide chains are attached to proteins.
Gycloproteins
132
Gram positive cell walls consist of a thick layer of?
Peptidoglycan
133
In addition to its structural and barrier functions this structure may also aid a bacterial pathogen by providing protection from a host organism's immune system.
Cell wall
134
Gram positive cell walls also contain
Lipoteichoic acid
135
The role this acid serves in gram positive bacterium is unknown but the human immune sytem may be activated by exposure to these chemicals
Lipoteichoic acid
136
Are part of gram negative bacteria that triggers an immune response in humans. The inflammatory response is much stronger than that from lipoteichoic acid.
Lipopolysaccarides
137
Stucture of gram negative bacteria.
```
Outer membrane
Periplasmic space
Thin layer peptidoglycan
Periplasmic space
Cell membrane
```
138
The outer membrane in gram negative bacteria contains?
Phospholipids and lipopolysaccarides
139
The ability to detect chemical stimuli and move toward or away from them is called?
Chemotaxis
140
Long whiplike structures that can be used for propolsion, bacteria may have more than one.
Flagella
141
The flagella is composed of a
Filament, hook, and basal body
142
Which antibiotic targets the enzyme that catalyzes the cross linking of peptidoglycan.
Penicillin
143
How do eukaryotic and prokaryotic flagella differ?
Prokaryotic flagella run in a rotary movement, while eukaryotic flagella run in a bending movement. The prokaryotic flagella use a rotary motor, and the eukaryotic flagella use a complex sliding filament system.
144
The overall structure of flagella is similar in both gram negative and gram positive bacteria but there are slight differences due to?
Physical structure and chemical composition
145
Hollow, helical structure composed of flagellin in flagella.
Fillament
146
Complex structure that anchors the flagellum to the cytoplasmic membrane and is also the motor in bacteria flagellum which rotates at rates up to 300Hz.
Basal body
147
Connects the filament and basal body. In bacteria as the basal body rotates , it exerts torque on the filament , which therby spins and propels the bacterium forward.
Hook
148
DNA can be found coiled around ______ in some bacteria.
Histone like proteins
149
Bacteria contain extrachromosomal(extragenomic) material known as?
Plasmids
150
Dna that is not necessary for survival of the prokaryote and is therfore not considered part of the genome but may confer advantages like antibiotic resistance.
Plasmids
151
What is used in prokaryotes for the elecrton transport chain and generation of ATP.
Cell membrane
152
Which cytoskeleton is less complex, eukaryotes or prokaryotes.
Prokaryotes
153
30S and 50S ribosomes
Prokaryotes
154
40S and 60S ribosomes
Eukaryotes
155
Why do eukaryotes and prokaryotes carry out protein synthesis in slightly different ways.
Different sized ribosomes
156
Form of asexual reproduction in which the circular chromosome replicates and the plasma membrane begin to move inward seperating the two daughter cells.
Binary fission
157
The single circular chromosome of a prokaryotic cell contains the information that is necessary for the cell to?
Survive and reproduce
158
Traits that increase pathogenicity, such as toxin production.
Virulence factors
159
Plasmids may carry
Virulence factors
160
Subset of plasmids that are capable of integrating into the genome of the bacterium.
Episomes
161
The exchange of genetic material between different organisms which leads to production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent.
Genetic recombination
162
Types of genetic recombination
Conjugation
Transformation
Transduction
163
Integration of foreign genetic material into the host genome. Whan a bacteria lysis the genetic material is taken up by another bacteria. Many gram negatives are capable of this process.
Transformation
164
The bacterial form of mating.
Conjugation
165
The ability to form a pili and donate DNA durung conjugation results from the presence of a particular piece of DNA called the
F factor
166
The bridge in conjugation is called a
Sex pili
167
In conjugation the donor is called ____ and the female_____
```
Donar male(+)
Recipient female(-)
```
168
Bacteia contain the F factor are called _____ and those that dont are called ______.
F+ or Hfr(high frequency of recombination)
| F(-)
169
True or false. The F(+) condition is transferable in the sense that an F(+) cell converts an F(-) cell to F(+) if a copy of the entire F plasmid is transferred.
True
170
True or False. You can have a F(-) recombinant cell.
True
171
A cell with the F factor built into its chromosome is called an
Hfr cell
172
True or False. The mating bridge usually breaks before the entire chromosome is transferred in Hfr cells.
True.
173
A cell with an F factor plasmid is called.
F(+)
174
Genetic recombination process that requires a vector- virus that carries genetic material from one bacterium to another.
Transduction
175
Viruses that infect bacteria
Bacteriophages
176
Genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from the genome.
Transposons
177
If a transposon is inserted within a coding region of gene, that gene may be
Disrupted
178
The four phases of bacteria colony growth
Lag phase
Exponential phase (log phase)
Stationary phase
Death phase
179
In a new environment, bacteria first adapt to the new local conditions
Lag phase
180
As bacteria adapt, the rate of divion increases, causing an increase in the number of bacteria in the colony.
Exponential phase(log phase)
181
As the number of bacteria in the colony grow resources are often reduced. The reduction of resources slows reproduction, and resources are often reduced.
Stationary phase
182
After the bacteria have exceeded the ability of the environment to support the number of bacteria, this marks the depletion of resources.
Death phase
183
This graph is a specialized representation of a logarithmic data set. They can be made easier to interpret because the other wise curved nature of the logarithmic data is made linear by a change in the axis ratio.
Semi log plot
184
Bacteria growth curve is an example of a
Semilog plot
185
Viruses may be as small as ____ or as large as ____.
20nm
| 300nm
186
Prokaryotes are ____ in length.
1-10 um
187
What are viruses composed of?
Genetic material
Protein coat- capsid
Sometimes envelope containing lipids
188
Gentic information in viruses can be
DNA or RNA
Circular or linear
Single stranded or double standed
189
Which viruses are more sensitive to heat, detergents, and less likely to persist on surfaces for an extended period of time.
Enveloped viruses
190
Viruses cannot reproduce independently, they are considered
Obligate intracellular parasites
191
Viruses must express and replicate genetic information within a host cell because they lack
Ribosomes to carry out protein synthesis
192
Bacteriophages contain what other structures?
Tail sheath
| Tail fibers
193
Bacteriophage structure that acts lika a syringe injecting material into a bacterium.
Tail sheath
194
Helps bacteriophage recognize and connect to the correct host cell
Tail fibers
195
Single stranded RNA viruses may be?
Positive sense or negative sense
196
Viruses genome may be directly translated to functional proteins by ribsomes in the host cell, just like mRNA.
Positive sense
197
This viruses RNA strand acts as a template for synthesis of a complementary strand which can then be used as a template for protein synthesis.
Negative sense virus
198
Negative sense RNA viruses must carry an ______ in the virion to ensure that the complementary strand is synthesized.
RNA replicase
199
Enveloped, single stranded RNA viruses. Virions contain two identical RNA molecules
Reteoviruses
200
Retroviruses contain an enzyme which synthesis DNA from single stranded RNA.
Reverse transcriptase
201
Synthesized DNA from a retrovirus is incorporated in a cells ?
Genome, making it infected forever
202
A protein called _____ on the HIV virus must bind to _____ and ______ proteins onthe cell surface.
Envelope
CD4
CCR5
203
Enveloped viruses fuse with the ______ after binding to the cells receptors.
Cell membrane
204
After reverse transcriptase turns the HIV virus's RNA into DNA, another viral enzyme,______, inserts the DNA copy into the cell's DNA.
Integrase
205
In the immature new virus copy, the HIV enzyme, _____, modifies viral protein chains, enabling virions to mature.
Protease
206
Viruses can only infect
A specific set of cells
207
True or false. Once the virus binds to the correct receptor, the virus and the cell are brought into close proximity to permit additional interactions.
True
208
A host cell may mistake a virus boumd to its membrane as nutirents or other useful molecule and will actually bring it in via
Endocytosis
209
Most DNA viruses must enter the ______ in order to be transcribed into mRNA.
Nucleus
210
RNA viruses(except for retro viruses) stay in the _____ to have there RNA translated.
Cytoplasm
211
Viral RNA is translated into proteins using what material from the host cell.
Ribosomes
tRNA
Amino acids
Enzymes
212
Viral genome must be returned to its ______ form before packaging.
Original
213
Virus progeny may released due to
1. cell death
2. lysis
3. Extrusion
214
a process where a cell exports large particles or organelles (transports them through its cell membrane to the outside)
Extrusion
215
A virus that is exiting a cell by extrusion is saud to be in what cycle?
Productive cycle
216
Bacteriophages may enter what two cycles?
Lytic cycle
| Lysogenic cycle
217
Cycle in which the bacteriophage produces massive numbers of new virions until the cell lyses.
Lytic cycle
218
Viruses in the lytic cycle are termed.
Virulent
219
Cycle in which a virus integrates into the host genome as a provirus or prophage, which can then reproduce along with the cell.
Lysogenic cycle
220
Although a virus may remain in the Lysogenic cycle indefinitely, _______ factors may cause the provirus to leave the cell genome and revert to a lytic cycle.
Environmental factors(radiation, light, or chemicals) basically a stimulus
221
The provirus may extract bacterial genes as it exits the Lysogenic cycle which allows ________ of genes from one bacterium to another
Transduction
222
Simultaneous infection of different viruses
Superinfection
223
Infection with one strain of phage generally makes a bacterium less susceptible to.
Superinfection
224
Infectious proteins that cause disease by triggering misfolding of other proteins.
Prions
225
Prions usually convert proteins from an _______ structure to a ________.
Alpha helical
| B pleated sheet
226
True or False. Prions misfolding of proteins drastically reduces the solubilty of the protein, as well as the cells abilty to degrade it causing it to accumulate interfering with cell function.
True
227
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
Familial fatal insomnia
Prion diseases
228
Small pathogens consting of very short circular single stranded RNA that can turn off genes, resulting in metabolic and structural changes. And potentially cell death.
Viroids
229
Viroids are classically thought of as plant pathogens but a few examples of human viroids exists such as.
HDV heptatis D virus
230
Alone HDV is innocuous but when coinfected with ________, HDV is able to exert its silencing effect on human hepatocytes.
HBV hepatitis B virus
