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Introduction to Psychology > Chapter 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science > Flashcards

Chapter 1: Thinking Critically with Psychological Science Flashcards

1
Q

STRUCTURALISM

A

Early school used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

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2
Q

FUNCTIONALISM

A

Early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

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3
Q

BOLDFACED (vocabulary)

A

Definition of bold-faced for English Language Learners. : very obvious and showing no feeling of doing something wrong. : having thick dark lines : printed in boldface.

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4
Q

Wilhelmina Wundt

A

Established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1879.

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5
Q

Mary Whiton Calkins

A

The first woman pioneering memory researcher and to be president of the American Psychological Association.

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6
Q

Margaret Floyd Washburn

A

First female psychology Ph.D. Wrote the book “The Animal Mind” became the APA’s second female president in 1921.

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7
Q

Why introspection fail as a method for understating how the mind works?

A

People’s self-reports varied, depending on the experience and the person’s intelligence and verbal ability.

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8
Q

Behaviorism

A

The view that psychology should be an object science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

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9
Q

Humanistic psychology

A

Historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people.

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10
Q

Cognitive neuroscience

A

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory and language).

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11
Q

Psychology

A

Is the science of behavior and mental processes.

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12
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

A leading behaviorist, rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior

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13
Q

Signing Freud

A

His controversial ideas have I fluentes humanity’s self-understanding.

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14
Q

How did the cognitive revolution affect the field of psychology?

A

It recaptured the field’s early interest in mental processes and made them legitimate topics for scientific study.

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15
Q

Nature-nurture issue

A

The long lasting controversy over the relative contribution that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
Today’s psychological science see traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

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16
Q

Natural Selection

A

The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

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17
Q

What is contemporary psychology’s position on nature-nurture debate?

A

Psychological events often stem from the interaction of nature and nature, rather than from either of them alone.

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18
Q

Levels of analysis

A

The differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analysis.

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19
Q

Biopsychosocial approach

A

An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis.

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20
Q

Biological influences

A
  • natural selection of adaptive traits.
  • genetics predisposition responding to environment.
  • brain mechanism.
  • hormonal influences.
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21
Q

Psychological influences

A
  • learned fears and other learned expectations.
  • emotional responses.
  • cognitive processing and perceptual interpretations.
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22
Q

Social-cultural influences

A
  • presence of others
  • cultural, cocieran, and family expectations
  • peer and other group influences
  • compelling models (such as in the media)
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23
Q

Neuroscience

A

Focus on how the body and the brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences (how the pain messages travel from the hand to the brain? How is blood chemistry linked with mood and motives?

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24
Q

Evolutionary

A

Focus on how the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes (how does evolution influences behavior tendencies)

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25
Q

Behavior Genetics

A

Focus on how our genes and our environment influence our individual differences. (To what extent psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression products of our genes? Of our environment? )

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26
Q

Psychodynamic

A

Focus on how behaviors springs from unconscious drives and conflicts. (How can someone’s personality traits and disorders be explained by unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas).

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27
Q

Behavioral

A

Focus on how we learn observable responses
(how do we learn to fear particular object or situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, say, to lose weight or stop smoking? )

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28
Q

Cognitive

A

Focus on how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.
(How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Solving problems?

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29
Q

Social-cultural

A

Focus on how behavior and thinking vary across situation and cultures.
(How are we alike as member of one human family ? How de we differ as products of our environment? )

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30
Q

What advantage do we gain by using the biopsychosocial approach in studying psychological events?

A

By incorporating different levels of analysis, the biopsychosocial approach can provide a more complete view than any one perspective could offer.

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31
Q

Basic Research

A

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

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32
Q

Applied Research

A

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

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33
Q

Counseling psychology

A

A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or relationships) and in achieving greater well-being.

34
Q

Clinical Psychology

A

A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

35
Q

Psychiatry

A

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example: drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

36
Q

Positive Psychology

A

The scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

37
Q

Psychologist

A

Use the science of behavior and mental processes to better understand why people think, feel, and act as they do.

38
Q

Case study

A

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

39
Q

Case studies do not enable us to learn about general principles that apply to all of us. Why not?

A

Case studies involve only one individual, so we can’t know for sure whether the principles observed would apply to a larger populations.

40
Q

Naturalistic Observation

A

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

41
Q

Survey

A

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

42
Q

Wording effects

A

Even subtle changes in the order or wording of questions can have a major effects.

43
Q

Population

A

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.(note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population ).

44
Q

Random sample

A

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

45
Q

What is unrepresentative sample, and how do researchers avoid it?

A

An unrepresentative sample is a survey group that does not represent the population being studied. Random sampling helps researchers form a representative sample because each member of the population has an equal chance of being included.

46
Q

Correlation

A

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

47
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from-1 to +1).

48
Q

Length of marriage correlates with hair loss in men. Does this mean that marriage causes men to lose their hair(or that balding men make better husbands)?

A

In this case, as many others, a third factor obviously explains the correlation: Golden anniversaries and baldness both accompany aging.

49
Q

Experiment

A

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors(independent variables) to observe the effect on some behaviors or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment or participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

50
Q

Experimental group

A

In a experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

51
Q

Control group

A

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparasion for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

52
Q

Random assignment

A

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

53
Q

Double-blind procedure

A

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

54
Q

Placebo

A

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes in an active agent.

55
Q

Hindsight bias

A

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-along phenomenon) .

56
Q

Critical Thinking

A

thinking that does not blindly accept aurguments and conclusions. Rather it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

57
Q

How does the scientific attitude contribute to critical thinking?

A

The scientific attitude combines:

1) CURIOSITY about the world around us
2) SKEPTICISM toward various claims and ideas
3) HUMILITY about one’s own understanding.

evaluating evidence, assessing conclusions, and examining our own assumptions are essential parts of critical thinking.

58
Q

How Do Psychologist Ask and Answer Questions?

A

With scientific attitude with the scientific method (evaluation ideas with observation and analysis)
By describing and explain, theories are putting to practice.

59
Q

How theories advance psychological science?

A

In everyday conversation, we often use theory to mean “mere hunch”. In science, a theory explains with principles that organize observations and predict behaviors or events.
By organizing isolated facts, a theory simplifies. By liking facts with deeper principles, a theory offers a useful summary.
As we connect the observed dots, a coherent picture emerge.

60
Q

Theory

A

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

61
Q

A good theory produces…

A

It implies hypothesis that offer Testable predictions and, sometimes, practical applications.

62
Q

Hyphotesis

A

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

63
Q

Operational definition

A

A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as “what an intelligence test measures”

64
Q

Replication

A

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic funding extends to other participants and circumstances.

65
Q

When a theory will be useful?

A

1) organize a range of self-reports and observations

2) implies predictions that anyone can use.

66
Q

What studies can test our hypotheses and refine our theories?

A

By using :
descriptive methods
Correlational methods
Experimental methods

67
Q

Descriptive methods

A

Describe behaviors:

  • Case studies
  • Naturalistic observations
  • Survey
68
Q

Correlational methods

A

Associate different factors

69
Q

Experimental Methods

A

Manipulates factors to discover their effects.

70
Q

What is the starting point of any science?

A

Description

71
Q

What measure do researchers use to prevent the placebo effect from confusing their results?

A

Randomly assigns participants to an experimental group (which receives the real treatment) or to a control group (which received placebo).
A comparison of the results will demonstrate whether the real treatment produces better results than belief in that treatment.

72
Q

Independent Variable

A

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

73
Q

Confounding variable

A

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

74
Q

Dependent variable

A

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

75
Q

Why, when testing a new drug to control blood pressure, would we learn more than about its effectiveness from giving it to half the participants in a group of 1,000 than to all 1,000 participants.

A

To determine the drug’s effectiveness, we must compare its effect on those randomly assigned to receive it (the experimental group) with the other half of the participants (the control group), who receive a placebo. If we gave the drug to all 1,000 participants, we could have no way of knowing whether the drug is serving as a placebo or is actually medically effective

76
Q

Culture

A

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

77
Q

Ethics code urges researches to:

A

1) obtain human participants’ informed consent before the experiment
2) protect them from a harm and discomfort
3) keep information about individual participant confidential
4) fully debrief people (explain the research afterward)

78
Q

Informed consent

A

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to decide whether they wish to participate.

79
Q

Debriefing

A

The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

80
Q

How are human research participants protected?

A

Ethical principles developed by international psychological organizations urge researches using human participants to obtain:
Informed consent
To protect them from harm and discomfort
To test their personal information confidentially, and to fully debrief all participants.

81
Q

Testing effect

A

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading information.
Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced.

82
Q

SQ3R

A

A study method incorporating five steps: Survey, question, read, retrieve, review.

Introduction to Psychology (2 decks)

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