Chapter 1: What is Psychology Flashcards
Chapter 2: Psychology's Scientific Method Chapter 3: Biological Foundations of Behavior Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception Chapter 6: Learning Chapter 7: Memory Chapter 5: States of Consciousness (286 cards)
1
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CHAPTER 2: PSYCHOLOGY’S SCIENTIFIC METHOD
A
CHAPTER 2: PSYCHOLOGY’S SCIENTIFIC METHOD
2
Q
what is science
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science is a method. it’s not what you study, but how you study it
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what are scientists purpose
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theorize to explain the world
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theory
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a system of ideas that attempts to explain observations and make predictions about future observations
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scientific method
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how theories are rejected, or supported, or refined
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scientific method
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observe hypothesize test conclusions evaluate
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step 1: observe
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observe some phenomenon:
curiosity & critical thinking
formulate or challenge a theory
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step 2: hypothesize
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formulate hypotheses and predictions:
testable prediction
derived from theory
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step 3: test
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test through empirical research:
operational definition of variables
analyze data using statistical procedures
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step 4: conclusions
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draw conclusions:
replication of results
reliability
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step 5: evaluate
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evaluate the theory:
change the theory
peer review and publication
meta-analysis
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descriptive research
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goal: describing a phenomenon
observation
surveys and interviews
case studies
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correlational research
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goal: identify relationships
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experimental research
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goal: determine causation
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external validity
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representative of real world issues?
do results generalize to the real world?
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internal validity
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are dependent variable changes the result of independent variable manipulation?
bias? logical errors?
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bias and expectations
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experimenter bias demand characteristics research participant bias placebo effect solution: double-blind experiment
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possible research methods
A
observation survey and interview case studies correlational research experimental research
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population
A
entire group about whom conclusion is to be drawn
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sample
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portion of population actually observed
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representative sample
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characteristics similar to population
opposite of “biased sample”
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random sample
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each individual in population has equal chance of being selected
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“artificial” world
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laboratory setting, controlled setting
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“real” world
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natural setting, naturalistic observation
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statistics
mathematical methods used to report data
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descriptive
describe/summarize
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measures of central tendencies
mean
median
mode
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measures of dispersion
range
| standard deviation
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inferential
draw conclusions
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APA guidelines
informed consent
confidentiality
debriefing
deception
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CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
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psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental process
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scientific
systematic methods
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behavior
what can be directly observed
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mental process
thoughts, feelings, motives
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science of psychology
critical thinking
skepticism
objectivity
curiosity
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positive psychology
emphasizes human strengths
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Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
1879- established 1st psychology lab Wundt's Structuralism
structures of the mind
introspection: systematic, detailed self-report
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William James (1842-1910)
```
James' Functionalism:
functions/purposes of the mind
mind's interactions with outside world
stream of consciousness
why is human thought adaptive?
```
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Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
On the Origin of Species, 1859
| psychology and evolution
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natural selection
competition for resources
favors genetic characteristics that promote reproduction and survival
environmental changes alter course of evolution
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contemporary approaches
```
biological
behavioral
psychodynamic
humanistic
cognitive
evolutionary
sociocultural
```
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biological appraoch
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neuroscience: nervous system
structure
function
development
genetics
biochemistry
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behavioral approach
environmental determinants of observable behavior
| reject explanations referencing thought
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psychodynamic approach
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freud
psychoanalysis:
unconscious thought
conflict between biological drives and demands of society
early childhood family experiences
```
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humanistic approach
positive human qualities/potential
| free will
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cognitive approach
mental processes involved in knowing
| information processing
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evolutionary approach
explanations of human behavior: adaptation
reproduction
natural selection
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sociocultural appraoch
social and cultural environments
differences:
between ethnic and cultural groups
within and across countries
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health and wellness
mind-body connection:
how the mind impacts the body
how the body impacts the mind
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CHAPTER 3: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR
CHAPTER 3: BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR
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neuroscience
study of the body's electrochemical communication circuitry
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nervous system
complex
integrated
adaptable (plasticity)
electrochemical transmission
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nervous system: pathways
nerves carry information
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nervous system: divisions
central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS)
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central (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral (PNS)
somatic NS: sensory nerves and motor nerves
| autonomic NS: sympathetic NS and parasympathetic NS
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nervous system - cells
glial cells and neurons
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glial cells
provide support and nutrition
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neurons
```
information processing: computing & communicating
mirror neurons (in primates): imitation, social perception
```
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neural impulse
negatively + positively charged ions
polarization (imbalance in charges)
resting potential
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neural impulse pt. 2
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semipermeable membrane
ion channels
depolarization
threshold
action potential
all-or-none principle
```
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synaptic transmission
electrical impulse is converted into a chemical signal
axon vesicle releases neurotransmitter into gap
dendrite receptor site detects neurotransmitter
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neurotransmitter
carry information across the synaptic gap to the next neuron
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acetylcholine
muscle actions, learning, memory
black widow venom increase ach level
botox decreases ach levels
alzheimer's disease decrease ach levels
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GABA
anxiety decreases GABA levels
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glutamate
excitatory
learning and memory
involved in many psychological disorders
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norepinephrine
stress and mania increase norepinephrine levels
depression decreases norepinephrine levels
regulates sleep states in conjunction with Ach
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dopamine
voluntary movement
reward anticipation
stimulant drugs: activate dopamine receptors
parkinson's disease decrease dopamine levels
schizophrenia increases dopamine levels
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serotonin
regulation of sleep, mood, attention, learning
depression decreases serotonin levels
prozac increases serotonin levels
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endorphines
natural opiates
| mediate feelings of pleasure and pain
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oxytocin
both a hormone and a neurotransmitter
related to onset of lactation in new mothers
related to attachment/emotional bonds
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neural networks
interconnected pathways of nerve cells
integrate sensory input and motor output
develops across the years
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studying the brain
brain lesioning: naturally occuring or induced
electrical recording: electroencephalograph (EEG)
single-unit recording
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brain image
```
X-Ray
CT Scan
PET
MRI
fMRI
```
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hindbrain
parts of the brain: brainstem and cerebellum
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brainstem
medulla - control breathing, regulate reflexes
| pons - sleep and arousal
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cerebellum
motor coordination
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midbrain
substantia nigra
parkinson's disease
reticular formation
stereotyped behavior patterns (like walking)
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forebrain
limbic system and thalamus
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limbic system
memory and emotion
amygdala - discrimination of objects needed for survival and emotional awareness and expression
hippocampus - formation and recall of memories
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thalamus
relay station for much sensory information
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basal ganglia
coordination of voluntary movements
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hypothalamus
eating, drinking, sexual behaviors
regulate body's internal state
emotion, stress, reward
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cerebral cortex
neocortex: outermost layer and four lobes
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four lobes
occipital (vision)
temporal (hearing, language processing, memory)
frontal (intelligence, personality, voluntary, muscles)
parietal (spatial location, attention, motor control)
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somatosensory cortex (in partial lobe)
body sensations/touch
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motor cortex (in frontal lobe)
voluntary movements and point-to-point mapping
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association cortex (75% of cortex)
not sensory or motor, but associations between
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corpus callosum
large bundle of axons that connects the two hemispheres of the brain
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left hemisphere
verbal processing, speech, grammar
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right hemisphere
spatial perception, visual recognition, emotion
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positive emotional responses
more left prefrontal lobe activity
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negative emotional responses
more right prefrontal lobe activity
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happy brains
prefrontal lobe asymmetry, biofeedback and mindfulness (Awareness) meditation
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recovery from brain damage depends on
age of the individual and extent of the damage
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repairing the damaged brain
collateral sprouting
substitution of function
neurogenesis
brain tissue grafts
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genotype
genetic heritage
| effects of experience and environment alters how genetic traits develop
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phenotype
observable characteristics both physical and psychological
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stressors
circumstances and events that threaten individuals and/or tax their coping abilities
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CHAPTER 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
CHAPTER 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
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sensation
the process of receiving stimulus energies from the external environment
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perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
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bottom-up processing
initiated by sensory input
| outside world's influence on perception
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top-down processing
initiated by cognitive processing
internal/mental world's influence on perception
expectations & prior understanding
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sensory receptors
specialized cells that selectively detect and transmit sensory information to the brain
cells send signals via distinct neural pathways
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synesthesia
one sense induces an experience in another sense
| phantom limb pain
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photoreception
detection of light
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mechanoreception
detection of pressure, vibration, and movement
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chemoreception
detection of chemical stimuli
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absolute threshold
the minimum amount of energy an organism can detect 50% of the time
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nosie
irrelevant and competing stimuli
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JND: just noticeable difference
the amount something must be changed in order for a difference to be noticeable, or detectable at least half the time (absolute threshold)
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absolute threshold for sound
would be the lowest volume that a person could detect
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the just noticeable difference
would be the smallest change in volume that a person could sense
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Weber's law
to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not a constant amount)
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subliminal perception
influence of information below the level of conscious awareness
vicary: eat popcorn
straham: thirsty v. non-thirsty words
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attention
```
focusing awareness on a narrowed aspect of the environment
selective attention
novelty, size, color, movement, emotions
emotion-induced blindness
unintentional blindness
```
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perceptual set
predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way
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sensory adaptation
change in responsiveness of sensory system
| based on level of surrounding stimulation (darkened room, bright outdoors)
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extrasensory perception
perceive thoughts or events in the absence of concrete sensory input
parapsychology
problematic (doubtful) for science
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wavelength
distance between peaks
perceived as hue
some wavelengths beyond human sensation
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amplitude
height of wave
| perceived as brightness
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purity
mixture of wavelengths
| perceived as saturation
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photo-receptor cells
rods:
sensitive to even dim light, but not color
function well in low illumination
humans have approx. 120 million rods
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fovea
densely populated with cones vital to many visual tasks
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blind spot
where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball
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feature detectors
highly-specialized cells in the visual cortex
size, shape, color, movement, or combination
deprivation studies: brain "learns" perception
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visual processing
feature detectors
parallel processing
binding
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color vision: theories
trichromatic theory
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three types of receptors
green, blue, and red ones
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color blindness
one or more cone types is inoperative
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afterimage
sensation remains after a stimulus is removed
| trichromatic theory cannot explain afterimages
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opponent process theory
complementary color pairs
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dimensions
shape, depth, motion, constancy
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gestalt psychology
perceptions are naturally organized according to certain patterns
whole is different from the sum of the parts
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gestalt principles
figure-ground relationship
closure
proximity
similarity
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binocular cues
disparity and convergence
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perceptual constancies
recognition that objects do not phyicially change despite changes in vantage points and viewing conditions
sensory information changes, but perceptual interpretation does not
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wavelength: distance between peaks
determine frequency
perceived as pitch
some wavelengths cannot be perceived
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amplitude: height of wave
perceived as loudness
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mixture of wavelengths: complex sounds
perceived as timbre/ tone saturation
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mixture of wavelengths: complex sounds
perceived as timbre/ tone saturation
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place theory of pitch perception
location of stimulation is important
| only explains perception of high frequencies
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frequency theory of pitch perception
frequency of nerve firing and volley principle
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frequency of nerve firing
limitations of neuronal firing rate
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volley principle
cell clusters can exceed limitations of firing rate
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pathway of auditory information
cochlea, auditory nerve, brain stem, temporal lobe
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other senses
```
skin senses:
touch, temperature, and pain
chemical:
taste and smell
kinesthetic
vestibular
```
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touch
receptors, spinal cord, thalamus, somatosensory cortex of the parietal lobe
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temperature
thermoreceptors: warm and cold
| simultaneous warm and cold perceived as hot
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pain
mechanical, heat, chemical receptors
fast and slow pain pathways
endorphins
perception of pain can vary
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empathy
feeling what others are feeling:
| "feeling" refers here to emotions and perspectives
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MTS: mirror-touch-synesthesia
literally feeling what you see another person feel:
sense of touch
doesn't happen when they see a non-person touched
overactive mirror neurons
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taste
receptors on tongue: papillae
sweet, sour, bitter, salty
cultural influence
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smell
olfactory sense:
| olfactory epithelium and temporal lobe and limbic system
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kinesthetic
movement, posture, orientation
muscle fibers and joints
proprioceptive feedback
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vestibular
balance and acceleration
| semicircular canals
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health and wellness
protecting ones vision and hearing:
diet
medical examinations
avoiding chronic exposure
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CHAPTER 6: LEARNING
CHAPTER 6: LEARNING
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learning
a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
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types of learning
classical and operant conditioning
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classical conditioning
helps to explain involuntary behavior and control of a response [fear] is shifted to a new stimulus [office]
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operant conditioning
helps to explain voluntary behavior and performing well in swim competition (behavior) and becomes associated with getting awards (consequences)
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generalization
CRs may also appear after various new NS that are similar to the CS
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discrimination
CRs appear after the CS but not after the CSs and discrimination is generally learned by presenting other CSs without the UCS
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extinction
CR weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS and Pavlov rang bell but did not present food; the dog stopped salivating
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spontaneous recovery
CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning and when Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated
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counterconditioning
assoicate CS with new, incompatible CR
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Thorndike's Law of Effect
consequences strengthens or weakens an S-R connection
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B.F. Skinner
expanded on Throndike's work and shaping (reward approximations of the desired behavior)
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positive reinforcement
behavior followed be rewarding consequence and rewarding stimulus is "added"
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negative reinforcement
behavior followed by rewarding consequence and aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is "removed"
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CHAPTER 7: MEMORY
CHAPTER 7: MEMORY
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the nature of memory
retention of information or experience over time
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three phases of memory
encoding
storage
retrieval
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what is the role of attention?
```
selective attention (purposive focus)
divided attention (multitasking)
sustained attention (vigilance)
```
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application: notetaking
handwritten better than laptops
| slower writing is "deeper" more attentive
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round letter task
```
R = round
K = not round
```
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verbal code
word or label
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image code
detailed and distinctive
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sensory memory
```
detailed information
in original sensory form
very brief duration
echoic (auditory) memory
iconic (visual) memory
```
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short term memory
```
limited duration (about 30 seconds)
limited capacity
```
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long term memory
relatively permanent with "unlimited" capacity
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chunking
grouping items into a unit
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rehersal
conscious repetition of information
| prolongs STM duration indefinitely
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explicit long-term memory (declarative)
episodic memory
| semantic memory
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implicit long-term memory (nondeclarative)
procedural memory
classical conditioning
priming
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declarative memory
conscious recollection of specific facts and events that can be verbally communicated
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Bahrick (1984) recall college spanish
initial learning is important
permastore content
effect of distributed practice
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subtypes of explicit memory
episodic and semantic
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episodic
autobiographical memories
193
semantic
knowledge about the world
194
nondeclarative memory
affected by a past experience without consciously recalling it
procedural memory
classical conditioning
priming
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schemas
scripts (event schema)
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connectionist networks
parallel distributed processing (PDP)
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memory: location
storage is diffuse
circuits of neurons
neurotransmitter involvement
long-term potentiation
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explicit memory
hippocampus, frontal lobes, amygdala
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implicit memory
hippocampus, temporal lobes, cerebellum
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serial position effect
tendency to recall items at beginning and end of a list more readily than those in middle
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types of tasks
recall and recognition
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encoding specificity
information present at encoding effective as retrieval cue and context-dependent memory
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autobiographical memories
life time periods: reminiscence bump
general events
event-specific information
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emotional memories
flashbulb memories
traumatic events
repressed memories: motivated forgetting: first forgotten and later recovered and Freudian defense mechanism
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repressed memories: recovered or created?
most children over age 4 have accurate recall
loss of memory for abuse is possible
false reconstruction of memory is possible
difficult to separate accurate and inaccurate memories
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false memories
failure to distinguish real memories (external source) from self-generated thoughts (internal source): distortion, bias, and inaccuracy
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distortion
altered by new information
leading questions
trying too hard to remember
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proactive
interfering material learned before target material is
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retroactive
interfering material learned after target material is
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decay theory
passage of time - forgetting
| does not explain all instances of forgetting
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tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
effortful retrieval of known information
| can retrieve some but not all information
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prospective memory
remembering to do something in the future:
content - remembering what to do
timing - remembering when to do it
absentmindedness
213
amnesia
anterograde amnesia: inability to store new information and events
retrograde amnesia: inability to retrieve past information and events
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study tips - encoding
```
give undivided attention
process deeply
make associations
use imagery
use chunking
encode early and often
```
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study tips - rehearse
```
redo notes
talk to others
test yourself
ask yourself questions
rest and eat well
```
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roles of autobiographical memories
learn from our experience
develop sense of identity
bond with others
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memory and aging
indicator of brain functioning
activity inoculates against mental decline
both physical and mental activity are important
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CHAPTER 5: STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
CHAPTER 5: STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
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consciousness
awareness of external events and internal sensations which occurs under conditions of arousal
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theory of mind
knowledge that people think and have private experiences
221
levels of awareness: higher-level consciousness
controlled processing
executive function
requires attention
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levels of awareness: lower-level consciousness
automatic processes
| daydreaming
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levels of awareness: altered states of consciouness
drug states
fatigue, illness, trauma deprivation
meditation, hypnosis
mental disorders
224
subconscious awareness
incubation and parallel processing
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sleep and dreams
low levels of consciousness of outside world
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no awareness
unconscious (covered) thought-Freud
| non-conscious processes
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prosocial behavior
improve well-being of others (not of self)
228
periodic physiological fluctuations
annual or seasonal and 24-hour cycles
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desynchronizing the clock
jet lag
shift-work problems
insomnia
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resetting the clock
bright light
| melatonin
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adaptive evolutionary function
safety
| energy conservation/efficiency
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restorative function
body rejuvenation and growth
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brain plasticity
enhances synaptic connections
| memory consolidation
234
stages of sleep
EEG measures electrical activity in the brain identifies stages of wakefulness and sleep
235
wakefulness
alpha waves (W-relaxed):
lower frequency
increase in amplitude
synchronous
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stage N-1
theta waves
slow frequency
low amplitude (but greater than alpha)
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stage N-2
sleep spindles: sudden increase in wave frequency
| still light sleep
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stage N-3
delta waves
slowest frequency and highest amplitude
deep sleep
bedwetting, sleep walking, sleep talking
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stage R (REM sleep)
rapid eye movements
EEG similar to relaxed wakefulness
dreaming
240
sleep cycles
typically 5 cycles a night
90-100 minutes per cycle
sleep patterns chagne during the night
241
sleep and the brain
reticular formation and neurotransmitters (NT)
242
sleep and disease
sleep problems common in Alzheimer disease, stroke, cancer
infectious diseases induce sleep
sleep problems are common in those with mental disorders
243
sleep disorders
```
insomnia
sleep walking, talking, and eating
nightmares and night terrors
narcolepsy
sleep apnea
```
244
theories of dreaming
historical and religious significance
Freud's Psychodynamic Approach
Cognitive Theory
Activation-Synthesis Theory
245
psychoactive drugs
act on nervous system to:
alter consciousness
modify perceptions
change moods
246
psychoactive drugs: effects on users
unsafe sexual behavior
direct and indirect health effects
school, work, and relationship problems
psychological problems
247
addiction
physical dependence and unpleasant withdrawal and psychological dependence
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alcohol
pain relief
relaxation, reduced inhibition
disorientation, death
brain/liver/heart, accidents, birth defects
249
barbiturates
sleep
relaxation, sleep
breathing difficulty, coma, death
accidents, overdose
250
tranquilizers
anxiety reduction
relaxation, slowed behavior
breathing difficulty, coma, death
accidents, overdose
251
opiates (narcotics)
pain relief
euphoria, drowsiness, nausea
convulsions, coma, death
accidents, AIDS, overdose
252
caffeine
none
alertness, sense of well-being
nervousness, anxiety, disturbed sleep
cardiovascular problems
253
nicotine
none
stress reduction
nervousness, disturbed sleep
cancer, cardiovascular disease
254
amphetamines
weight control
alert, excitable, irritable, less fatigue
paranoia, convulsions
insomnia, hypertension, death
255
cocaine
local anesthetic
alert, excitable, irritable, euphoric
paranoia, convulsions, cardiac arrest
insomnia, hypertension, death
256
MDMA (ecstasy)
none
hallucinations, sense of well-being
brain damage (memory. cognition)
cardiovascular problems, death
257
marijuana
treat glaucoma, nausea, pain
mild hallucinations, time distortion
fatigue, disorientation
accidents, respiratory disease
258
LSD
none
strong hallucinations, time distortion
severe mental disturbance
accidents
259
hypnosis is marker by
altered attention and expectation and unusual receptiveness to suggestions
260
four steps in hypnosis
1. distractions are minimized
2. told to concentrate on something specific
3. told what to expect
4. certain obvious events/feelings are suggested
261
explaining hypnosis
divided state of consciousness: obedient to hypnotist and hidden observer
social cognitive behavior: normal conscious state and social expectations for how to act hypnotized
262
hypnosis is used to
treat various health issues: alcoholism, smoking, somnambulism, and PTSD
effectiveness is debatable and can reduce experience of pain
263
meditation
a peaceful state of mind, not occupied by worry
mindfulness meditation used to treat a variety of conditions
lovingkindness meditation reduces prejudice
264
CHAPTER 9: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 9: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
265
development
the pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life: growth and decline -
biological processes
cognitive processes
socioemotional processes
266
nature
biological inheritance
267
nurture
environmental experiences
268
self
individuals take active roles in own development
269
resilience
a person's ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times
270
germinal period (weeks 1-2)
conception, fertilization, and zygote
271
embryonic period (weeks 3-8)
differentiation of tissue and organ formation
272
fetal period (months 2-9)
development of functionality
273
teratogens are agents that cause birth defects:
nicotine
alcohol
STIs
274
effects of teratogens depend on:
timing of exposure
genetic characteristics
postnatal environment
275
reflexes are genetically wired behaviors:
persist throughout life and disappear with neurological development
276
motor skills
locomotion and reach + grasp
277
preferential looking
give "choice" and measure preferences
278
brain development
myelination continues after birth
synaptic connections increase dramatically
brain mass increases dramatically
279
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
children actively construct their cognitive world using:
schemas - concepts or frameworks that organize information
assimilation - apply old (existing) schemas to new experiences
accommodation - adjust/alter schemas to new information
280
sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years)
coordinate sensations with movements
object permanence
progress from reflexive action to symbolic thought
281
preoperational stage (2-7 years)
symbolic thinking: words + images
intuitive reasoning
egocentrism
282
concrete operational stage (7-11 yrs)
operational thinking
classification skills
reason logically in concrete contexts
283
formal operational stage (11-15 yrs)
lasts through adulthood
abstract and idealistic thought
hypothetical-deductive reasoning
284
evaluating piaget's theory
underestimated infant object permanence
overestimated adolescent/adult hypothetical-deductive thought
culture and education also influence development
285
temperament
an individual's behavioral style or characteristic way of responding
286
infant attachment
the close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver: may provide important foundation for subsequent development
