Chapter 10: Language Production and Bilingualism

Question 1

What information is required to produce words?

Answer 1

1. grammatical
2. semantic
3. phonological

Question 2

What are the three types of speech errors known as slips-of-the-tongue?

Answer 2

1. sound errors
2. morpheme errors
3. word errors

Question 3

What are sound errors?

Answer 3

Sound errors are when sounds in nearby words are exchanged. For example, someone says dappy hance instead of happy dance.

Question 4

What are morpheme errors?

Answer 4

Morpheme errors are when morphemes are exchanged in nearby words. For example, easy enoughly instead of easily enough.

Question 5

What are word errors?

Answer 5

Word errors are when words are exchanged. For example, a soup of bowl instead of a bowl of soup.

Question 6

Describe Dell’s explanation of speech errors.

Answer 6

Based on the connectionist approach, Dell says words are made up of elements (e.g. sea is made up of “s” and “ea”) that are linked to sound elements. Right before speaking, the elements of the words you plan to say activate the corresponding sound elements. We produce the sound that is the most highly activated. Each sound element can be activated by more than one word in a sentence. When this happens, the sound is highly charged. If the activation level is equally high or higher than the correct one, the speaker may make a mistake by selecting the incorrect sound.

Question 7

What are the three stages of sentence production?

Answer 7

(1) message planning
(2) grammatical encoding
(3) phonological encoding

Question 8

What happens during message planning?

Answer 8

During message planning, we mentally plan the overall meaning of the message we intend to generate (i.e. the gist).

Question 9

What happens during grammatical encoding?

Answer 9

We select the words necessary to convey our planned message, add the correct morphology (e.g. adding -ed to a verb to convey past tense), and order the words in a way that follows the grammatical rules of the language we are speaking.

Question 10

What happens during phonological encoding?

Answer 10

We convert the units of our selected words into a sound code that allows us to produce the right movements of the mouth and vocal tract when we speak.

Question 11

What is prosody?

Answer 11

Prosody is “melody” or the intonation, rhythm and emphasis of an utterance.

Question 12

What is discourse?

Answer 12

Discourse is language units that are larger than a sentence.

Question 13

What is narrative?

Answer 13

Narrative is a type of discourse in which someone describes a series of events that may be real or fictional in a time-related sequence. These events are often emotionally involving.

Question 14

What sequence do narratives follow?

Answer 14

(1) a brief overview of the story
(2) a summary of the characters and setting
(3) an action that made the situation complicated
(4) the point of the story
(5) the resolution of the story
(6) the final signal that the story is done

Question 15

What are the types of gestures?

Answer 15

1. iconic
2. deictic
3. beat

Question 16

What are iconic gestures?

Answer 16

Iconic gestures have a form that represents the concept being described.

Question 17

What are deictic gestures?

Answer 17

Deictic gestures involve pointing to an object or location.

Question 18

What are beat gestures?

Answer 18

Beat gestures occur in a rhythm that matches speech rate and prosodic content of speech. They do not convey specific information to the listener.

Question 19

What is embodied cognition?

Answer 19

Embodied cognition is the proposal that people often use their own bodies and motor actions to express their abstract thoughts and knowledge. It focuses on concrete physical actions.

Question 20

Define pragmatics.

Answer 20

Pragmatics is the social rules and world knowledge that allow speakers to successfully communicate messages to other people.

Question 21

Explain common ground.

Answer 21

Common ground is a situation where the people in a conversation share similar background knowledge, schemas, and perspectives. These elements of common ground are necessary for mutual understanding. Speakers have to work to achieve common ground in order to successfully communicate messages to other people.

Question 22

Explain directives.

Answer 22

Directives are sentences that ask someone to do something. These requests can be direct or indirect.

Question 23

Explain framing.

Answer 23

Framing is using mental structures to simplify reality. Frames tend to structure what “counts” as facts. They are about using language to structure thinking. When people have different frames, such as individual- versus societal-level frames, it can be hard to talk with others about important issues. This is especially true when there is no common ground.

Question 24

What are the components of working memory used in writing?

Answer 24

1. phonological loop

2. visuospatial sketchpad

Question 25

Define bilingual.

Answer 25

Bilingual means a speaker is fluent in two different languages.

Question 26

What predicts success learning a second language?

Answer 26

1. motivation

2. the learner’s attitude toward people who speak the language