Chapter 11

Question 1

prejudice

Answer 1

A negative prejudgment of
a group and its individual members.
- prejudices can be negative or positive
- prejudice is an attitude - feelings, inclinations to act, and beliefs
- people might dislike those who are different from themselves and behave toward them in a discriminatory manner, believing them to be ignorant and dangerous.

Question 2

stereotypes

Answer 2

Beliefs about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes can be
overgeneralized, inaccurate, and
resistant to new information.

Question 3

discrimination

Answer 3

Unjustifiable negative behaviour toward
a group or its members.

• prejudice is negative attitude, discrimination is negative behaviour

Question 4

racism

Answer 4

(1) An individual’s prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behaviour toward
people of a given race, or
(2) institutional practices (even if
not motivated by prejudice) that
subordinate people of a given race.

Question 5

sexism

Answer 5

(1) An individual’s prejudicial
attitudes and discriminatory behaviour
toward people of a given sex, or
(2) institutional practices (even if
not motivated by prejudice) that
subordinate people of a given sex.

Question 6

subtle racial prejudice

Answer 6

three in four people who take the Implicit Association Test (IAT) display an automatic tendency to associate White, more than Black, with favourable words (Banaji & Greenwald, 2013). Modern prejudice also appears subtly, in our preferences for what is familiar, similar, and comfortable (Dovidio et al., 1992; Esses et al., 1993a; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2005).

• employment discrimination
• favouritism - airbnb hosts, uber drivers are more likely to cancel if the passanger is black

Question 7

LGBTQ prejudice

Answer 7

Community attitudes predict LGBT health. Communities where anti-gay prejudice is commonplace are communities with high rates of gay–lesbian suicide and cardiovascular death.

Between 2001 and 2005, 16 U.S. states banned same-sex marriage. In those states, gays and lesbians (but not heterosexuals) experienced a 37 percent increase in mood disorders, a 42 percent increase in alcohol use disorders, and a 248 percent
increase in general anxiety disorders (Hatzenbuehler, 2014).
- in the other states there was no increase

Question 8

Social inequalities

Answer 8

Unequal status breeds prejudice

Theresa Vescio and her colleagues
(2005) tested that reasoning. They found that powerful men who stereotype their female subordinates give them plenty of praise but fewer resources, thus undermining their performance and allowing the men to maintain their power.

Peter Glick and Susan Fiske’s distinction between “hostile” and “benevolent” sexism extends to other prejudices (2001). We see other groups as competent or as likeable but not usually as both.
- We typically respect the competence of those high in status and like those who agreeably accept a lower status.

Question 9

social dominance orientation

Answer 9

A motivation to have your own group
be dominant over other social groups.

• tend to view people in terms
  of hierarchies

Question 10

ethnocentric

Answer 10

Believing in the superiority of your own ethnic and cultural group and having a
corresponding disdain for all other
groups.

• These ethnocentric people shared certain tendencies: an intolerance for weakness, a punitive attitude, and a submissive respect for their group’s authorities, as reflected in their agreement with statements such as: “Obedience and respect for authority are the most important virtues children should learn.” Adorno and his colleagues (1950) surmised that these tendencies define a prejudice-prone authoritarian personality.

Question 11

authoritarian personality

Answer 11

A personality that is disposed to
favour obedience to authority and
intolerance of outgroups and those
lower in status.

• Studies of authoritarian people’s early lives have revealed that, as children, they often face harsh discipline.

Question 12

religion and prejudice

Answer 12

there is a correlation with religion and prejudice

• Consider those who benefit from social inequalities while avowing that “all are created equal.” They need to justify keeping things the way they are. And what could be a more powerful justification than to believe that God has ordained the existing social order?
  For all sorts of cruel deeds, noted William James, “piety is the mask” (1902, p. 264).

(1) White church members express more racial prejudice than non-members
(2) those professing traditional or fundamentalist Christian beliefs express more prejudice than those professing more progressive beliefs

However:
- There might be no causal connection.
- Perhaps prejudice causes religion, such as by leading people to create religious ideas to support their prejudices.
- Perhaps religion causes prejudice, such as by leading people to believe that, because all individuals possess free will, impoverished minorities have themselves to blame for their status, and gays and lesbians choose their orientation.

Question 13

if religion caused prejudice, then these wouldn’t be the case

Answer 13

• Faithful attenders are less prejudiced.
• Intrinsically religious are less prejudiced.
• Clergy are less prejudiced.

Question 14

Conformity

Answer 14

Once established, prejudice is maintained largely by inertia. If prejudice is socially accepted, many people will follow the path of least resistance and conform to the fashion.
They will act not so much out of a need to hate as out of a need to be liked and accepted.

Question 15

Institutional supports

Answer 15

Social institutions (schools, government, the media) may bolster prejudice through overt policies, such as segregation, or by passively reinforcing the status quo.

Question 16

aggression and scapegoating

Answer 16

Social institutions (schools, government, the media) may bolster prejudice through overt policies, such as segregation, or by passively reinforcing the status quo.

Question 17

realistic group conflict theory

Answer 17

The theory that prejudice arises
from competition between groups
for scarce resources.

Question 18

social identity

Answer 18

The “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.
- categorisation

Question 19

in-groups

Answer 19

“Us”: groups of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity.

• identification - We associate ourselves with certain groups (our in-groups) and gain self-esteem by doing so.

Question 20

out-groups

Answer 20

“Them”: groups that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their in-group.
- We compare: We contrast our groups with other groups (out-groups), with a
favourable bias toward our own groups.

Question 21

in-group bias

Answer 21

The tendency to favour your own group.
- In-group bias expresses and supports a positive self-concept
- In-group bias feeds favouritism

Question 22

Must in-group liking foster out-group disliking?

Answer 22

Experiments reveal both in-group liking and out-group disliking. Sometimes love and hate are opposite sides of the same coin. If you love the Toronto Blue Jays, you may hate the Detroit Tigers. Patriots’ love of tribe or country motivates their fighting to defend it against enemies.

• We also ascribe uniquely human emotions (love, hope, contempt, resentment) to in-group members and are more reluctant to see such human emotions in out-group members (Demoulin, Saroglou, & Van Pachterbeke, 2008; Leyens et al., 2003, 2007). There is a long history of denying human attributes to out-groups—a process called “infrahumanization.”

Question 23

Need for status, self-regard, and belonging

Answer 23

Status is relative: To perceive ourselves as having status, we need people
below us. Thus one psychological benefit of prejudice, or of any status
system, is a feeling of superiority.

Question 24

terror management

Answer 24

According to “terror management theory,” people’s self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural worldviews and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their mortality.
- They shield themselves from
the threat of their own death by derogating those whose challenges to their worldviews further arouse their anxiety.

Question 25

motivation to avoid prejudice

Answer 25

The motivation to avoid prejudice can lead people to modify their thoughts and actions. Aware of the gap between how they should feel and how they do feel, self-conscious people will feel guilt and try to inhibit their prejudicial response

Question 26

Categorization: Classifying People Into Groups

Answer 26

Stereotypes sometimes offer “a beneficial ratio of information gained to effort expended” (Sherman et al., 1998). Stereotypes represent cognitive efficiency: They are energy-saving schemes for making speedy judgments and predicting how others will think and act.

Question 27

Spontaneous categorization

Answer 27

We find it especially easy and efficient to rely on stereotypes when we are - pressed for time - preoccupied - tired - emotionally aroused

Question 28

out-group homogeneity effect

Answer 28

Perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members. Thus, “they are alike; we are diverse.”

Question 29

recognition accuracy

Answer 29

Germany reveal that people of other races do, in fact, seem to look more alike than do people of your own race (Chance & Goldstein, 1981; Ellis, 1981; Meissner & Brigham, 2001; Sporer & Horry, 2011). When White students are shown faces of a few White and a few Black individuals and then asked to pick these individuals out of a photographic lineup, they show an own-race bias: They more accurately recognize the White faces than the Black, and they often falsely recognize Black faces never before seen.

Question 30

own-race bias:

Answer 30

The tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race.

Question 31

Distinctive people

Answer 31

your difference from the others probably made you more noticeable and the object of more attention.

Question 32

Distinctiveness feeds self-consciousness

Answer 32

When surrounded by Whites, Blacks sometimes detect people reacting to their distinctiveness. Many report being stared or glared at, being subject to insensitive comments, and receiving bad service - Researchers Robert Kleck and Angelo Strenta (1980) discovered this when they led Dartmouth College women to feel disfigured. The women thought the purpose of the experiment was to assess how someone would react to a facial scar created with theatrical makeup - Actually, the purpose was to see how the women themselves, when made to feel deviant, would perceive others’ behaviour toward them. After applying the makeup, the experimenter gave each woman a small hand mirror so that she could see the authentic-looking scar. When the woman put the mirror down, the experimenter then applied some “moisturizer” to “keep the makeup from cracking.” What the “moisturizer” really did was remove the scar. - the “disfigured” women became acutely sensitive to how their partners were looking at them. They rated their partners as more tense, distant, and patronizing. In fact, observers who later analyzed videotapes of how the partners treated “disfigured” persons could find no such differences in treatment. Self-conscious about being different, the “disfigured” women misinterpreted mannerisms and comments they would otherwise not have noticed.

Question 33

vivid cases

Answer 33

If one has limited experience with a particular social group, they recall examples of it and generalize from those (Sherman, 1996). Moreover, encountering exemplars of negative stereotypes can prime the stereotype, leading people to minimize contact with the group

Question 34

illusory correlations

Answer 34

illusions of correlations that aren't there -David Hamilton and Robert Gifford (1976) demonstrated illusory correlation in a clever experiment. They showed students slides on which various people, members of “Group A” or “Group B,” were said to have done something desirable or undesirable; for example, “John, a member of Group A, visited a sick friend in the hospital.” Twice as many statements described members of Group A as Group B, but both groups did nine desirable acts for every four undesirable behaviours. Since both Group B and the undesirable acts were less frequent, their co-occurrence name”—was an unusual combination that caught people’s attention. The students then overestimated the frequency with which the “minority” group (B) acted undesirably and judged Group B more harshly.

Question 35

group-serving bias

Answer 35

Explaining away out-group members’ positive behaviours; also attributing negative behaviours to their dispositions (while excusing such behaviour by one’s own group).

Question 36

just-world phenomenon

Answer 36

People’s tendency to believe that the world is just and that, therefore, people get what they deserve and deserve what they get. - (Lerner & Simmons, 1966). One of the participants, a confederate, is selected by lottery to perform a memory task. This person receives painful shocks whenever they give a wrong answer. You and the others note their emotional responses. After watching the victim receive these apparently painful shocks, the experimenter asks you to evaluate the victim. How would you respond? With compassionate sympathy? We might expect so However, When observers were powerless to alter the victim’s fate, they often rejected and devalued the victim.

Question 37

Self-Perpetuating Prejudgments

Answer 37

- Prejudgments guide our attention and our memories. People who accept gender stereotypes often misrecall their own school grades in stereotype-consistent ways. For example, women often recall receiving worse math grades and better arts grades than were actually the case (Chatard, Guimond, & Selimbegovic, 2007) - Prejudgments are self-perpetuating - Whenever a group member behaves as expected, we duly note the fact; our prior belief is confirmed. When a member of a group behaves inconsistently with our expectation, we may explain away the behaviour as due to special circumstances

Question 38

subtyping

Answer 38

Accommodating groups of individuals who deviate from one’s stereotype by thinking of them as a special category of people with different properties. - helps maintain stereotypes - High-prejudice people tend to sub- type positive out-group members (seeing them as atypical exceptions); low-prejudice people more often subtype negative out-group members

Question 39

subgrouping

Answer 39

Accommodating groups of individuals who deviate from one’s stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group. - stereotype—tends to lead to modest change in the stereotype as the stereotype becomes more differentiated (Richards & Hewstone, 2001). Subtypes are exceptions to the group; subgroups are acknowledged as a part of the overall diverse group.

Question 40

stereotype threat

Answer 40

A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. In several experiments, Steven Spencer, Claude Steele, and Diane Quinn (1999) gave a very difficult math test to men and women students who had similar math backgrounds. When told that there were no gender differences on the test and no evaluation of any group stereotype, the women’s performance consistently equalled the men’s. Told that there was a gender difference, the women dramatically confirmed the stereotype

Question 41

effects of stereotype threat

Answer 41

- Cultural stereotypes (Women do not do well in math.) - Stereotype threat (Female student might fail a math test.) - Performance deficits (Female student does not do well on math test.) OR - Disidentification with stereotyped domain (Math isn't important for my future work.)

Question 42

value affirmation

Answer 42

“Values affirmation”—getting people to affirm who they are—also helps (Walton, 2014). A Stanford research team invited Black Grade 7 students to write about their most important values several times. Compared to their peers, they earned higher grades over the next two years

Question 43

How does stereotype threat undermine performance?

Answer 43

- stress - stress impairs brain activity - Self-monitoring. Worrying about making mistakes disrupts focused attention - Suppressing unwanted thoughts and emotions. The effort required to regulate one’s thinking takes energy and disrupts working memory

Question 44

Do Stereotypes Bias Judgments of Individuals?

Answer 44

Yes 1. stereotypes mostly reflect reality 2. people often evaluate individuals more positively than the individuals’ groups - However, stereotypes, when strong, do colour our judgments of individuals

Question 45

Stereotypes bias interpretations

Answer 45

Stereotypes also colour how we interpret events

Question 46

Harsher evaluation of a stereotypes target

Answer 46

When University of Waterloo Students received positive feedback from a "manager" his race did not matter; but when they received negative feedback, they saw a Black manager as less competent than a White manager. - similar with female and male managers - Studies conducted by University of Winnipeg professor Lisa Sinclair and University of Waterloo professor Ziva Kunda suggests they do. They analyzed students’ evaluations of their professors and found that when students get good grades they rate their professors highly, whether they are women or men. But when students get bad grades, they rate female professors especially low