chapter 11

Question 1

What does motivation refer to?

Answer 1

The process that influences the direction, persistence, and vigor of goal-directed behavior.

Question 2

Define instinct in the context of motivation.

Answer 2

An inherited predisposition to behave in a specific and predictable way when exposed to a particular stimulus.

Question 3

What are the key characteristics of instincts?

Answer 3

• Genetic basis
• Universally found among species
• Not dependent on learning
• Have survival value for the organism.

Question 4

What is homeostasis?

Answer 4

This is the body’s natural tendency to maintain a stable internal environment, like regulating body temperature, blood sugar levels, and hydratio

Question 5

What does drive theory propose?

Answer 5

Physiological disruptions to homeostasis produce drives that motivate an organism to behave in ways that reduce tension.

Question 6

What is the ultimate goal of motivated behavior according to Clark Hull?

Answer 6

Reducing drives.

Question 7

What are incentives in motivation theory?

Answer 7

Environmental stimuli that pull an organism toward a goal.

Question 8

What does expectancy x value theory state?

Answer 8

Goal-directed behavior is determined by the strength of expectations and the value placed on the goal.

Question 9

Differentiate between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.

Answer 9

• Extrinsic motivation: Performing an activity for external rewards.
• Intrinsic motivation: Performing an activity for its own sake.

Question 10

What is the overjustification hypothesis?

Answer 10

Giving extreme rewards for intrinsically enjoyed activities may reduce intrinsic motivation.

Question 11

What are deficiency needs according to Maslow?

Answer 11

Needs concerned with physical and social survival.

Question 12

What are growth needs in Maslow’s hierarchy?

Answer 12

Needs that motivate us to develop our potential.

Question 13

List the three fundamental psychological needs in self-determination theory.

Answer 13

• Competence
• Autonomy
• Relatedness.

Question 14

What is metabolism?

Answer 14

The body’s rate of energy or caloric utilization.

Question 15

What is the set point theory in relation to body weight?

Answer 15

An internal physiological standard around which body weight is regulated.

Question 16

What role does glucose play in hunger regulation?

Answer 16

Glucose is the body’s major source of immediately usable fuel and influences hunger signaling.

Question 17

What is leptin?

Answer 17

A hormone secreted by fat cells that decreases appetite.

Question 18

What is the function of the lateral hypothalamus (LH)?

Answer 18

Triggers hunger (‘hunger on’).

Question 19

What does the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) do?

Answer 19

Ends hunger (‘hunger off’).

Question 20

How do psychological factors influence hunger?

Answer 20

Eating is reinforced by the taste of food and expectations of pleasure.

Question 21

What is the body mass index (BMI) range for being considered overweight?

Answer 21

A BMI between 25-29.9.

Question 22

What are some environmental influences on obesity?

Answer 22

• Abundance of inexpensive, tasty, high-fat food
• Cultural emphasis on value
• Technological advances decreasing physical activity.

Question 23

What are the four stages of the sexual response cycle?

Answer 23

• Excitement phase
• Plateau phase
• Orgasm phase
• Resolution phase.

Question 24

What role do sex hormones play in sexual behavior?

Answer 24

They have organizational effects that direct the development of sex characteristics and activational effects that stimulate sexual desire.

Question 25

What is sexual dysfunction?

Answer 25

Chronic impaired sexual functioning that causes distress.

Question 26

What are the three dimensions of sexual orientation proposed by modern researchers?

Answer 26

* Self-identity * Sexual attraction * Sexual behavior.

Question 27

What is the need for achievement?

Answer 27

The desire to accomplish tasks and attain standards of excellence.

Question 28

What are the two types of motivation related to achievement?

Answer 28

* Positively oriented motive for success * Negatively oriented motivation to avoid failure.

Question 29

List the four basic achievement goal orientations.

Answer 29

* Mastery orientation * Mastery avoidance goal * Performance orientation * Performance avoidance goals.

Question 30

What influences the development of a high need for achievement?

Answer 30

Encouragement and reward for achievement from parents, without punishment for failure.

Question 31

What is motivational conflict?

Answer 31

When motivational goals conflict with each other, such as achievement versus affiliation motives.

Question 32

What happens when achievement is taken for granted by parents?

Answer 32

Failure is punished ## Footnote This can lead to a lack of intrinsic motivation in children.

Question 33

What do individualistic cultures tend to stress?

Answer 33

Personal achievement ## Footnote This contrasts with collectivist cultures which focus on group goals.

Question 34

What do collectivist cultures reflect?

Answer 34

Desire to fit into the family and social group ## Footnote They emphasize meeting expectations and working for group goals.

Question 35

What is motivational conflict?

Answer 35

Conflicts between different motivational goals ## Footnote Example: choosing between studying or going to a party.

Question 36

What are the three basic types of motivational conflict?

Answer 36

* Approach-approach conflict * Avoidance-avoidance conflict * Approach-avoidance conflict ## Footnote Each type involves different decision-making scenarios.

Question 37

What is approach-approach conflict?

Answer 37

Opposition between two attractive alternatives ## Footnote Example: Choosing between two desirable job offers.

Question 38

What is avoidance-avoidance conflict?

Answer 38

Facing two undesirable alternatives ## Footnote Example: Study boring material or fail the exam.

Question 39

What is approach-avoidance conflict?

Answer 39

Being attracted to and repelled by the same goal ## Footnote Example: Attracted to job opportunities but repelled by more classes.

Question 40

What does delay discounting refer to?

Answer 40

The decrease in the value of a future incentive as one has to wait for it ## Footnote Motivation increases as the reward becomes imminent.

Question 41

How do theorists view emotions?

Answer 41

As reactions or responses to events related to important goals ## Footnote Emotions energize and direct behavior.

Question 42

What are the four common features of emotions?

Answer 42

* Responses to external/internal stimuli * Result from cognitive appraisal * Physiological responses * Include behavior tendencies ## Footnote These features explain how emotions affect behavior.

Question 43

What is cognitive appraisal?

Answer 43

The process of making judgments about situations and their personal meaning ## Footnote It influences emotional responses.

Question 44

What role does the brain play in emotional arousal?

Answer 44

Subcortical structures like hypothalamus and amygdala are major players ## Footnote They coordinate physiological and behavioral responses.

Question 45

What is the role of the thalamus in emotion?

Answer 45

Routes sensory input to both the cortex and amygdala ## Footnote This allows for rapid emotional reactions.

Question 46

What is the function of the prefrontal cortex in emotion regulation?

Answer 46

Involves reasoning, planning, and control of impulsivity ## Footnote Damage can lead to unregulated emotions.

Question 47

Which hemisphere is more active during positive emotions?

Answer 47

Left hemisphere ## Footnote Right hemisphere is more active during negative emotions.

Question 48

What physiological changes occur during the fight or flight response?

Answer 48

* Increased blood sugar * Dilated pupils * Tensed muscles ## Footnote These changes prepare the body for immediate action.

Question 49

What are expressive behaviors?

Answer 49

Observable indicators of subjectively experienced emotions ## Footnote Example: Facial muscle responses.

Question 50

What is empathy?

Answer 50

The capacity to experience the same emotional response as another person ## Footnote Important in therapeutic settings.

Question 51

What did Charles Darwin argue about emotional displays?

Answer 51

They are products of evolution contributing to species survival ## Footnote Similarities in emotional expression exist across cultures.

Question 52

What are display rules?

Answer 52

Culturally influenced standards for expressing specific emotions ## Footnote Example: Different meanings of gestures in various cultures.

Question 53

What is the relationship between arousal and performance?

Answer 53

There is an optimal level of arousal for performance depending on task complexity ## Footnote Higher complexity tasks require lower arousal.

Question 54

What does the James-Lange theory emphasize?

Answer 54

The causal role of bodily responses in experiencing emotion ## Footnote We feel emotions based on physiological reactions.

Question 55

What is the Cannon-Bard theory?

Answer 55

Emotional arousal and cognition occur independently in response to stimuli ## Footnote The thalamus sends messages simultaneously to the cortex and body.

Question 56

What is the facial feedback hypothesis?

Answer 56

Facial muscle contractions influence emotional experience ## Footnote Positive or negative responses can be triggered by facial expressions.

Question 57

What do cognitive-affective theories focus on?

Answer 57

Interactions between cognitions and physiological responses ## Footnote Emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in emotional responses.

Question 58

What does the two-factor theory of emotion propose?

Answer 58

Arousal and cognitive labeling based on situational cues are critical for emotional experience ## Footnote The intensity of arousal indicates how strongly one feels something.