Chapter 12: Personality

Question 1

A young mother, Alma, whose finances are tight, decides to buy an expensive dress. Though she feels guilty, she rationalizes that because she spends so much self-sacrificing time with spit-up in her hair and baby food splattered on her clothes, she deserves something nice to put on once in a while. How might you explain Alma’s behaviour using Freud’s theories?

A) The ego represents our identity of ourselves and is responsible for such tasks as planning and reasoning. When it is compromised by hypersensitive emotions, it releases energy that causes us to behave in ways we might not otherwise.

B) The id is impulsive and operates on the pleasure principle while the ego delays gratification and operates on the reality principle, but when there is a clash between the two, the id usually wins.

C) Guilt is usually a result of a violation of the morality principle, which is controlled by the ethical superego, which can act as a catalyst for defense mechanisms.

D) Anxiety is uncomfortable, and when it slips into our conscious awareness, the ego attempts to reduce it by using defense mechanisms, such as rationalization.

Answer 1

D) Anxiety is uncomfortable, and when it slips into our conscious awareness, the ego attempts to reduce it by using defense mechanisms, such as rationalization.

Question 2

Most of her life Stella has been a “people-person. “Her extroverted personality and energy when with others across situations have helped her to make friends as a child, adolescent and adult. Which tendency best describes her?

a) central trait

b) personality state

c) personality trait

d) transient state

Answer 2

c) personality trait

Question 3

According to Freud, defence mechanisms are used to ________.

a) prevent us from becoming fixated at various stages

b) protect us from anxiety

c) help us resolve our unconscious conflicts

d) resolve conflicts between the id and the superego

Answer 3

b) protect us from anxiety

Question 4

Ophelia feels attracted to a coworker. She is also feeling considerable anxiety and guilt over this attraction; that evening Ophelia was very affectionate and caring toward her partner. This is an example of the defence mechanism called ________.

a) sublimation

b) displacement

c) regression

d) projection

Answer 4

d) displacement

Question 5

Petra is extremely insecure. She wants to be in a relationship, but she is so afraid of rejection that, every time somebody asks her out, she declines. She does not try to make friends as she is sure that, as soon as they get to know her, they will NOT like her. Petra most likely has ________ personality disorder.

a) dependent

b) schizotypal

c) borderline

d) avoidant

Answer 5

d) avoidant

Question 6

Which of the following is an example of reciprocal determinism?

a) Harper does not bother practicing her dance routine for the contest because she believes she is a natural born dancer and that she will win based on her talents alone.

b) Alonso goes for a jog and runs his hardest to deal with the stress he is facing at work.

c) Ifan studies hard for his final exams because he is terrified that he will not get into graduate school.

d) Petra works hard at the law firm because she believes that she does a great job and because doing a great job in the past has been rewarding for her.

Answer 6

d) Petra works hard at the law firm because she believes that she does a great job and because doing a great job in the past has been rewarding for her.

Question 7

This theorist believed that cultural differences play a more significant role in development than Freud acknowledged.

a) Horney

b) Adler

c) Jung

d) Rogers

Answer 7

a) Horney

Question 8

If Amit is a typical four-year-old child, Adler would believe that Amit has ________.

a) feelings of inferiority

b) strong sexual desires

c) an accurate self-concept

d) feelings of superiority

Answer 8

a) feelings of inferiority

Question 9

Under which assessment category does the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) fall?

a) projective tests

b) interviews

c) observations

d) personality inventories

Answer 9

d) personality inventories

Question 10

Much of the current critcism of Freud’s theory stems from the fact that .

a) his theory is difficult to test

b) most psychologists do not believe in unconscious processes

c) Freud overestimated how much influence parents had on child development.

d) he spent too much time talking about sexual issues

Answer 10

a) his theory is difficult to test

Question 11

Defining Personality

Answer 11

Personality - the unique characteristics that account for enduring
patterns of inner experience and outward behaviour.

• A collection of stable states and characteristics
• Varies from one individual to another

Question 12

Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory

Answer 12

• Based on his clinical practice (seeing patients), he decided that people
  are influenced by their “unconscious”.
• Developed psychoanalysis - type of therapy based on his theory of
  discovering one’s unconscious.
• Parent-child relationship influences how people feel about themselves and
  how they handle intimacy as adults

Question 13

The Structure of Personality:

Answer 13

Conscious - the thoughts and feelings that we are aware of at any given
moment.

Preconscious - holds memories or feelings that we aren’t consciously
thinking about, but can be brought to consciousness.

Unconscious - holds memories or feelings that are so unpleasant or
anxiety provoking that they are repressed.

Question 14

Freud’s view of the mind- The structure of personality

Answer 14

Topmost level: Thoughts and feelings that we are
aware of at any given moment.

Second level: Preconscious, which contains thoughts, memories,
and ideas that can be easily brought into conscious mind if
attended to.

Deepest level: Unconscious, contains most of the content of
our minds.

Question 15

Three forces in personality:

Answer 15

• Id
• Ego
• Superego

Question 16

Anxiety and Defence Mechanisms

Answer 16

• To handle unsettled state of anxiety, humans must have some effective
  methods for handling it.

Defence mechanisms - unconscious tactics to protect us from anxiety and
internal conflict by dealing with id impulses.

• Repression - keeps unpleasant thoughts buried deeply in unconscious
  mind.
• Denial - refusal to acknowledge an existing situation.

Question 17

Evaluating Freud:

Answer 17

Inadequate evidence:
* Small, limited sample—upper-class individuals of mostly
women from Vienna.
* No cross-cultural validity, narrow views of gender.
* Cannot be directly tested by scientific methods
* Lack of predictive power

Many aspects remain relevant:
* Parental influence on relationships in adulthood.
* Defense mechanisms serve a function in development and
psychological disorders.
* Continued study of the unconscious mind.

Question 18

Other Psychodynamic Theories: Neo-Freudians

Answer 18

• Believe that human functioning is shaped by interacting, or dynamic,
  psychological forces.
• Believe that much of mental life is unconscious.
• Believe that childhood shapes personality.
• Believe that we struggle with inner conflicts.

Question 19

Other Psychodynamic Theories: Alfred Adler

Answer 19

• Social needs and conscious thoughts not sexual are critical in the
  development of personality.
• Investigated how feelings of inferiority motivate a quest for
  superiority.

Question 20

Other Psychodynamic Theories: Carl Jung

Answer 20

Unconscious has two parts:
* Personal unconscious - formed through individual experiences.
* Collective unconscious - inherited memories shared by all
humankind.
* Archetypes - shared memories; are reflected in symbols and
images that appear in art, literature, and religions of all cultures.
The archetype of the hero can be found in stories of any cultural
tradition, while an archetype of mother and stepmother can be
seen throughout children’s fairytales (Robertson, 1995).

Question 21

Other Psychodynamic Theories- Karen Horney

Answer 21

• Accepted basic principles of psychoanalysis but disagreed with certain aspects of Freud’s
  Psychoanalytic theory.
• Karen also suggested that Basic anxiety develops in children who experience extreme feelings
  of isolation and helplessness; sets the stage for later neuroses (i.e., mental disorders such as
  depression).
• Culture has a role in development. Disagreed with Freud’s claim that basic conflicts that shape
  development are universal. Horney observed differences in personality structure between
  patients in Europe and those in United States.
• Rejected Freud’s theories about penis envy- rather, women envied men’s power as determined
  by cultural norms.

Question 22

The Humanistic Perspective: Abraham Maslow

Answer 22

• Humans are basically good and have an urge to grow and fulfill his
  or her potential.
• Successful fulfillment of each layer of needs is vital in the
  development of personality.
• Personality arises from striving to meet needs
• Hierarchy of needs.
• Self-actualization - need to fulfill our full potential as humans.

Question 23

The Humanistic Perspective: Carl Rogers

Answer 23

• Humans are fundamentally positive and strive for self-actualization
• Self-concept - consistent pattern of self-perception describing how we
  see ourselves; can be used to characterize an individual
• Unconditional positive regard - acceptance without terms or
  conditions
• Client-centred therapy - put aside conditions of worth developed
  during childhood.

Question 24

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi

Answer 24

Peak experiences—moments in which people experience intense
clarity of perception, feelings of joy and excitement, and a suspended
sense of time and reality
* Positive experiences also consist of peak experiences.

Question 25

The trait perspective:

Answer 25

Personality traits—tendencies to behave in certain ways that remain relatively constant across situations. Trait theories * Gordon Allport—first trait theorist, based work on case studies. Trait theorists believe that we can describe people by specifying their main characteristics (traits). * Traits like honesty, ambition, outgoing, lazy are thought to be stable across over lives or time.

Question 26

Superfactors- Eysenck

Answer 26

Superfactor – one of three fundamental dimensions of personality made up of a related cluster of personality traits. * Three superfactors (i.e., dimensions) of Personality: * 1.Neuroticism, 2.Extraversion and 3.Psychoticism Neuroticism – the degree to which one experiences negative emotions. Note that how the person experiences emotions influences the person’s behaviour. o Low: calm, even-tempered. o High: worrying, temperamental.

Question 27

The Five-Factor Model

Answer 27

Five-factor theory - an empirically derived trait theory that proposes five major trait categories: *Agreeableness/disagreeableness. *Extraversion/introversion. *Neuroticism/stability. *Conscientiousness/irresponsibility. * Openness to experience/unimaginativeness. Most popular trait theory, especially with researchers.

Question 28

Evaluating Trait Theories: Strengths and Criticisms

Answer 28

Strengths: * Traits become increasingly stable across the adult years. * Relatively stable across many situations and cultures. * Traits predict other personal attributes and often other behaviours. * There appears to be a strong genetic contribution to personality traits. Criticisms: * Oversimplify personality. * Portray personality as fixed rather than changing.

Question 29

Personality Assessment

Answer 29

Personality Inventories: paper-and-pencil questionnaires designed to assess various aspects of personality. e.g., MMPI-2, NeoPI-R Projective Tests: use ambiguous stimulation to access a person’s Unconscious. e.g., Rorschach inkblot test, TAT

Question 30

Common Personality Inventories

Answer 30

* MMPI-2: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2 * NeoPI-R: Revised NEO Personality Inventory (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientousness, and Openness to Experience) * Favoured by clinicians, employers, and other professionals because easy to administer and to score. Each test requires individuals to respond to hundreds of statements.

Question 31

Issue with Personality Inventories

Answer 31

* Issue of Socially Desirable Responding - tailoring answers on personality inventories to create a good impression. * Personality tests not always applied properly. Example, in employers use measures of conscientiousness to predict applicants work performance. Job that requires speed and quantity of output could be hindered by extensive checking and rechecking.

Question 32

Personality Assessment- Rorschach inkblot test

Answer 32

Rorschach inkblot test - ambiguous shapes intended to force participants to project meaning. * Responses thought to indicate underlying personality characteristics or conflicts

Question 33

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Answer 33

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) - participants create stories describing ambiguous black-and-white drawings * Systematic scoring, but not consistently used * Low validity

Question 34

The Situationist and Interactionist Perspectives

Answer 34

Situationism - behaviour is governed by situation rather than internal traits. A view of personality, which notes that in many social situations people respond is similar ways, meaning that the situation drives their response rather than their personality. Interactionism - emphasizes the relationship between a person’s underlying personality traits and the reinforcing aspects of the situations in which people choose to put themselves

Question 35

Explanation of the Situationist Perspective

Answer 35

* Those who prescribe to situationist perspective would follow with Skinner’s view on behaviour as being shaped only by our environment. * Personality = Response tendencies * We tend to favour or repeat responses that have previously helped us gain a desired outcome or avoid an undesired one. * Trait theorists would say you studied most of course material in your courses before tests, because there is a combination of some intelligence, conscientiousness, and perhaps a little neuroticism. * Situationist theorists would say that you studied because you found academic achievement to be rewarding or because studying served to keep your parents happy.

Question 36

Interactionist Perspective

Answer 36

* Focuses on the interactions between people and situations. People influence the situations that they encounter. * The choices you make, such as which classes you attend is a function of your personality traits. * Introversion leads you to choose small classes, because more comfortable to participate in small classes; whereas school with large classes, easier for you to go unnoticed. * There are many interactionist theories, but the most known is Albert Bandura’s social-cognitive theory which takes into account reciprocal determinism as a process influencing an individual’s personality.

Question 37

Bandura's social-cognitive theory and his Interactionist perspective

Answer 37

* Modelling (i.e., observational learning): Process by which people especially as young children learn to respond to particular situations by observing and imitating the behaviour of others. * Self-efficacy: Person’s personal beliefs about their ability to achieve the goals they pursue. The higher your self-efficacy, more likely pursue a goal and be reinforced by outcome. * Reciprocal determinism is a process defined by Bandura. * Through reciprocal determinism, reciprocal relationship exists among environment, behaviour, and internal mental events which influences an individual’s personality. * *Personality is determined by the interaction of the external environment, internal mental events, and behavior. * E.g., Receiving good grades and praise for schoolwork as a child may help you believe that you are a good student and this high level of self-efficacy may further lead to behavours (studying and doing homework) that produces further desired reinforcement-more good grades and praise.

Question 38

Phrenology

Answer 38

Phrenology - evaluate mental and moral qualities by examining skull shape. Franz Joseph Gall bumps on a person's head could be linked to their intellectual faculties and personality. Inaccurate! But his ideas about the localization of brain functions and the role of the brain in personality continue to influence neurological science.

Question 39

Personality: What happens in the brain?

Answer 39

Several brain areas are involved. Amygdala * Emotionality, motivation, processing negative stimuli (e.g., fear and avoidance). *Inhibited children may have an easily activated amygdala in unfamiliar situations, which activates a lot of fear and shyness.

Question 40

Personality: Gender Differences

Answer 40

* Similarities outnumber differences!! * Incorrect conclusions cause stereotypes * Women assess others’ emotions more accurately than men

Question 41

Personality: Gender Differences Gilligan (1982)

Answer 41

* Men score higher on traits reflecting individuality and autonomy * Women score higher on traits reflecting social and connectedness traits

Question 42

Personality: Gender Differences Hyde (2008)

Answer 42

* There are differences in levels of aggression, motor performance, and sexuality. Levels of physical aggression higher among males. * Males and Females have different views of sex.

Question 43

Social role theory:

Answer 43

Social role theory: theory that gender differences occur because girls and boys develop different behaviours and skills based largely on differences in gender role expectations.

Question 44

Why do gender differences in personality exist?

Answer 44

* Family and social relationships may also contribute to the development of personality differences between boys and girls. As children interact with their families and peers, they form ideas about gender role expectations based on how those other individuals react to their behaviours * Number of theorists propose that cultural norms influence how men and women form their self-schemas. Schemas are ways we organize knowledge. A self-schema is an individual’s cognitive framework for the knowledge he has about himself. When we need to process new information about ourselves or our interactions, we refer to these schemas for guidance.

Question 45

Differences Among Cultural Groups

Answer 45

Individualist cultures value individual achievement and independence * Score higher on measures of extraversion and openness. * Value privacy. * Describe self using a personal trait. o I am independent. Collectivist cultures consider the needs of the group over that of the individual. * Score higher on measures of agreeableness * Value harmony in interpersonal relationships * Describe self as part of a group

Question 46

Culture, socioeconomic environment, and personality

Answer 46

Living conditions have a direct impact on how personality traits translate into behaviours * Socioeconomic status link to individual differences in impulsivity * Poor neighbourhoods produce many more triggers for delinquent acts * Personality characteristics (impulsivity) will result in behaviours (delinquent acts) if situational triggers (poverty) are also in place. If the triggers are removed (higher SES) the behaviour will not be exhibited.

Question 47

Personality Disorders: When Things Go Wrong

Answer 47

Personality disorder - an inflexible pattern of inner experience and outward behaviour that causes distress or difficulty with daily functioning. Four Features (DSM-V): * Rigid, extreme, and distorted thinking patterns (thoughts); * Problematic emotional response patterns (feelings); * Impulse control problems (behaviour); and, * Significant interpersonal problems (behaviour).

Question 48

BPD

Answer 48

Borderline personality disorder - severe mood and self-concept instability, high levels of volatility. * Emotion dysregulation. * Engage in impulsive, dangerous activities (e.g., self-mutilation, risky sexual behaviour, substance abuse). 114

Question 49

Antisocial personality disorder

Answer 49

Antisocial personality disorder - extreme disregard for others. * Impulsive, egocentric, reckless, possibly criminal. * More males. * 1.7%–3.7% of the Canadian population. * Superficial charm, irritable, aggressive. 115

Question 50

1. According to Freud, sexual relationships based on lust rather than respect and a desire for commitment are indicators that an individual A) is fixated at the oral stage of development. B) is fixated at the anal stage of development. C) is fixated at the genital stage of development. D) is in the phallic stage of development.

Answer 50

C) is fixated at the genital stage of development

Question 51

2. Mason is extremely meticulous. For example, he has specific storage areas for each pair of his shoes, which he always wipes off after wearing, and places back into the box they originally came in, before storing them in their designated location. His girlfriend Bria is causing Mason great anxiety. She throws her clothes into a pile on the chair and rummages though the pile when she needs something to wear and frequently must hunt for a missing shoe because she never puts them away together. Freud would say Mason is fixated in thestage and that Bria is fixated in the stage. A) anal; latent B) latent; anal C) anal; anal D) latent; genital

Answer 51

C) anal; anal

Question 52

3. Gabrielle didn't study for her exam and really wants to cheat. This is entirely unacceptable to her superego, which won't let her do this. However, Gabrielle thinks she sees nearly everyone else in the class cheating during the exam. This is an example of the defence mechanism called A) reaction formation. B) displacement. C) sublimation. D) projection.

Answer 52

D) projection

Question 53

4.The measures openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism as aspects of personality. A) Five-Factor model B) state theory C) factor analysis theory D) Eysenck's model

Answer 53

A) Five-Factor model

Question 54

5.According to the theory of , one's beliefs, behaviour, and the environment all interact to produce personality. A) reciprocal determinism B) self-actualization C) interactionism D) situationism

Answer 54

A) reciprocal determinism

Question 55

6.The personality theorists who believed in the basic goodness of individuals and their natural tendency toward self-actualization were A) Karen Horney and Abraham Maslow. B) Alfred Adler and Carl Jung. C) Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. D) Carl Rogers and Alfred Adler.

Answer 55

C) Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

Question 56

7.Celine is very sociable, assertive and in involved in several exciting social activities. Her sister, Selena, however, believes that she has direct communication with life forms from another planet. According to Eysenck, Celine would score high on and Selena would score high on . Question options: A) openness; neuroticism B) extroversion; psychoticism C) extroversion; neuroticism D) agreeableness; neuroticism

Answer 56

B) extroversion; psychoticism