Chapter 12 Text book notes Flashcards

Question

How does the invention of velcro demonstrate analouguous thinking

Answer 1

George Mestral - was walking his dog found that burs got stuck to him examined them under a microscope found that they had little hooks used this source problem in the target problem of creating something that would allow things to stick together

Answer 2

A new solution to a problem or creation that is useful

Answer 3

According to the two stage model of problem solving the two stages for problem solving are generation and evaluation Generation: occurs after a person discovers that their is a problem involves them thinking of (generating) potential solutions Evaluation: occurs after a person has thought of potential solutions involves them determining if a solution is worthwhile or not according to this model the generation stage - the stage of discovering that there is a problem is the most important stage

Answer 4

Having a base of knowledge to work with is important for problem solving allows people to suddenly see correct solutions because they have the arranged their information about the subject in a new way - can not usually have a solution suddently pop up without knowing alot about the subject.

Answer 5

Smith found that having too much prior information about a problem can lead a person to only approach it in a specific way leading to a lack of original solutions. Smith is a very common last name too frequent to be original --> therefore connects back to Smith's experiment. Smith had 2 groups - both groups were asked to draw what they thought life on earth could evolve into group 1: shown 3 exemplar drawings where the life forms all had 4 legs, antenna, and a tail Group 2: shown no exemplars before hand The life forms group 1 drew were had higher rates of having antenna, 4 legs and tails. This demonstrates that group 1's approach to the problem was narrowed by their prior experience.

Answer 6

Group brainstorming was born from Osborn (like us born - ideas from us collective were born --> group brain storming) Osborns proposed group brain storming in order to try to reduce the likelihood that solutions were narrowed to following a one individuals prior knowledge, sicne people tend to have thier solutions narrowed if they have prior knowledge having more different prior knowledges avaliable will in theory result in more solutions. Group brainstorming actually does not promote more creativity - when people try to generate solutions as a group less solutions will be generated compared to when the same number of individuals generate solutions on their own. Group brainstorming results in less solutions because: 1. It is likely that one member will dominate a discussion 2. Even though people are meant to be told that they will not be judged lots of people will not put their ideas forward out of a fear of judgment 3. If other people are speculating on a solution people will feel less pressure to think of their own or might be focusing so much on others solutions that they forget to try to come up with their own.

Answer 7

Finke in the simpsons is creating things sometimes he creates something incorrectly however instead of throwing away the already created invention he figures out a use for it this is simmilar to Finke in psych who loooked at how people could create uses for preinvented objects. Finke had an image of parts of objects included things like bolts, semi circles, etc. Had participants close their eyes and touch the paper three times - each object that their hand landed on was one that they then had to use to make a new object. The new object that they had to create could not resemble an existing object and should be possibly practically useful (they however did not have to think of an existing use just had to not be impossible to be practically useful). Then gave the participants a category name ex utensils and then they had to think of how the object that they had formed could be used as a utensil. Found that particpants could find more possible use for the preinvented objects that they had made then those of which others had made, this connects back to how we are better at remembering things if we can connect them back to ourselves- if we can connect an objext back to us as the creator we might be able to access more memoreis that osmehow relate to it and therefore be able to come up with more potential solutions.

Answer 8

Involves 2 electrodes --> one (the cathodal electrode c appears lower in the alphabet then "A" a negative charge is lower so c= negative, activation - negative as in no negative charges decrease activation) has a negative charge which will decrease electrical activity in the part of the brain that we want to be less active and one (the anodal A comes before C it is higher in the alphabet then C a higher charge is a positive charge therefore anodal means positive) has a positive charge which will increase electrical activity in the part of the brain that we want to be more active (therefore we can control which structure is strongly activated and which structure is weakly activated by controlling where we place our electrodes)

Answer 9

Chi (expert v.s novice physics problem) Chi (3) Snyder (6) together their names have 9 letters - 9 dot problem. Presented participants with an image of 3 rows that were 3 dots long and asked the participants to without retracing a line or lifting their pencil draw 4 lines that went through all 9 dots. Most participants could not get the solution as they were stuck on trying to ensure that they retained the square outline when drawing their lines (the solution was to draw a diagnol line and a triangle). Participants assuming that objects that look the same follow the gestalt principles of perception. It has been found that the left anterior temporal lobe is activated when grouping like patterns --> Chi and Snyder wanted to see if decreasing activity in this area would make participants less likely to percieve the dots as creating a common shape and more likley to find a solution that deviated from that shape. Thy achieved this by using a transcranial directed current where they placed the cathode (the negative electrode - will decrease activity in whichever region is under it) over the left anterior temporal lobe and the anode (positive electrode - will increase activity in whichever region is under it) over top of the right anterior temporal lobe. Found that 40% of participants who under went transcranial directed current were able to solve the problem this is equal to the number of participants who gained the ability to solve the porblem after being told that the solution involved drawing lines outside of the square, this demonstrated that reducing activity in the left anterior temporal lobe allowed participants to not be restricted by perceptions of patterns naturally and in this case expanded the possible solutions they could come up with.

Answer 10

the activity of your brain before you solve the problem can serve as a koun (cone) to what type of solution you come up with- the activity in your brain before you solve a problem can funnel you towards a specific solution. Took EEG of the people before he presented them with the problem - which was called a compound associate problem. A compound associate problem is when an individual is presented with a few words and they have to find the same word that can be attached to each word to form some new words. ex. (crab, pine, sauce) the word would be apple to form (crabapple, pineapple, and applesauce). The problem could be solved analytically (using procedure) or through spontaneous insight. Half of participants solved the problem within the first 30 seconds. When asked which method they used 56% used spontaneous insight whereas 44% used analytical problem solving. Ironic the people who used noninsight solutions had increased activity in the occipital lobe before they attempted to solve the problem- which is ironic because the occipital lobe is associated with sight and these solutions are called non-insight so no sight. Whereas the 56% of participants who used insight solutions had increased activity in the frontal lobe before they attempted to solve the problem. Shows that the activity in the brain that occurs even before an attempt at solving the problem is made can influence how the individual attempts to solve the problem. (they discovered the methods that participants used to solve the problem by asking participants after the fact)

Answer 11

Suggested that mind wandering can help bring us solutions to problems came to this idea due to the fact that individuals often discover the solution to a specific problem after they have quit attempting to solve it.

Answer 12

When ideas come to a person while they are taking time away form focusing on a specific task

Answer 13

A baird sings is a time of relaxation maybe when your on a break since you are on a break according to Baird you are more likely to experience mindwandering and incubation (where the solution to a problem comes to you as soon as you quit directly focusing on the problem). Baird had participants look at a list of objects and try to determine as many alternate uses for an object as possible, ex a rock could become a paperweight, a door stopper, etc. then participants spent 12 minutes doing a different task from the AUT could do 2 different tasks task 1. a difficult task that required a lot of focus unlikely to allow for mindwandering as mindwandering usually occurs when we do not have to conciously focus on something. task 2. an easy task that required little focus and would likely allow for mind wandering to occur. Then tested people who had done both tasks on the AUT again found that participants who had done the easy task had a 40% higher increase in performance on the AUT then participants who had done the hard task. Baird concluded that this served as evidence that mindwandering (as would occur if listening to a baird relaxing allows for mindwandering) facilitated incubation

Answer 14

Mayseless like less of a maise - mazes are often associated with quests which often include bairds- mayseless's experiment connects with bairds in that it also involves examining the role of the DMN and creativity by performing an AUT test and makes it less maiseless (less confusing) what is going on the brain then Bairds - key difference is Mayseless had participants in an fMRI whereas Baird did not. Mayseless presented participants with an object and asked them to think of 1 alternate use with the goal of originality (originality would be scored based on how many people had given the answere) ex. if the object was a pencil and the participants had given its alternate use as being to stab this would get low originality as many people would say it whereas if they said to use as a rolling pin this would get high originality because not many people would say this. Found that people with higher originality scores had more activity in the DMN then people who did not - so demonstrates that the DMN itself and not just mind wandering specifically is associated with creativity.

Answer 15

Ellamil - ella enchanted is a book series someone at somepoint did have to design the cover after being told what the plot was - Ellamil had participants do the same thing just for different books and while in an fMRI. Ellamil told participants to first generate ideas for a book cover for the description they had been given and to secondly evaluate their ideas. Found that both the DMN and the executive control network (ECN) were activated during both processes but were more highly activated during the evaluation phase. Additionally found that the ECN and DMN had simmilar activation patterns during resting state - which demonstrates functional connectivity (this is because if two areas have simmilar activation patterns it indicates that they are either communicating with each other or recieving the same input which is causing the same activation patterns --> overall shows that they are part of the same neural network). The functional connectivity between the DMN and the ECN suggests that the two networks were working to create the same goal in this case likely specifically working together to evaluate ideas.

Answer 16

Beaty Beat Ellamil on understanding of functional connectivity of the DMN and ECN because proposed an answer as to why this occurs and beat as in he explained that two networks that usually are trying to beat each other - work in opposition with each other (the DMN and the ECN) worked together examined the levels of functional connectivity of the DMN and the ECN in individuals who scored high and low on creativity. Found that there was greater functional connectivity among individuals who scored high on creativity- this demonstrates that likely there are greater connections in their neural network that allow for both the DMN and ECN to communicate with each other and to work together to help evaluate and generate creative ideas. The connectivity between the DMN and the ECN is surprising because ECN associated with directed attention so usually it's activity decreases when the DMN activity increases. Beaty concluded that the ECN is also activated during creative thinking in order to bur some restraints on mind wandering - to ensure that speculation of possible solutions does not wander too far from the original problem.

Answer 17

Volitional daydreaming if you do something on your own volition you are choosing to do so, so volitional daydreaming refers to day dreaming with choice - where the outcome is one that you would choose (want), Ways to engage in daydreaming 1. let your mind wander and pay attention to your mind wandering 2. take a shower 3. Go for a walk (Operazzo (music to the ears of people who like walking) and Schultz) found that walking increased the number of other purposes people engaging in AUT could come up with by 60% 4. take a break

Answer 18

It can promote creativity however it is also important to work with others or else good ideas are unlikely to be built upon.

Answer 19

Focused attention mediatation - in focused attention meditation an individual will try to focus on one thing ex their breathing and if they find their mind wandering they will bring their attention back to that one thing - in this ex. their breathing --> although focused attentin mediattion can reduce stress and help decrease distractions preventing mindwandering can also prevent creativity to solve this there is another type of meditation open meditation - in open meditation individuals will pay attention to any thought their mind brings without judgment

Answer 20

co like company colzato is also joining the company of researchers who used AUT as he used it too zat o like state oo meditation focuses on state and people say o Colzato had 3 groups 1. individuals who had prior experience with focused attention meditation 2. individuals who had prior experience with open meditation 3. A group with no prior experience with mediation asked them all to do AUT found the FA and OM group were able to name more alternate uses then the controlled group with the OM group being able to list the most (makes sense because OM promotes both mindfulness and mindwandering which are both involved in creativity whereas FA only promotes mindfulness)

Answer 21

1. Representativeness - how well our observation represents the general category that it is from - ex if we only have little dogs in our neighborhood and only observe little dogs then we might conclude that all dogs are little due to what has been represented to us - however these representations fail to adequately reflect the entire category of dogs so this will result in weak conclusions 2. The number of observations we have - if we are basing our conclusion off of a single observation there is a high chance we have missed something - the more we observe the greater chance we have to run into more represenatives of the categoy and in order to see something repeatedly it likely has to occur multiple times - so we are likely to get a better sense of what is the majority representation of the category. 3. The quality of our observations. We could conclude that the sun will rise in Tuscan tommorow morning because we have seen it rise every other morning which is strong on the number of observations but if we wanted to strengthen it on the quality of observations we could add in an observation that has been verified by others - ex how the earth rotates around the sun.

Answer 22

inductive refers to inferences - inductive reasoning relates to this because inductive reasoning represents any unconfirmed predication that we make based on our prior experiences and knowledge. Allows us to make judgments based on what outcome has most often happened in the past not just what all the possible outcomes are - this is very important because it helps us save time - it would be very ineffective if every decision we had to make we considered all possibilities as equally likely - ex. if we had to test each chair we sat in to make sure it would not break would be very time consuming and effortful to always do.

Answer 23

liek heur is tic - tic like time when approaching a problem taking a shortcut that provides us to a solution - heuristics are like rules of thumbs

Answer 24

The avaliablity heuristic is our tendency to assume that whatever comes to mind most easily is more probable - (could be done to logically explain why the thing came to mind easily was that it happens often and therefore more probable). Ex when asked to judge if more letters started with the letter "r" or had "r" as the third letter the majority of particiapnts reported that more words started with the letter "r" despite the fact that the number of words tha thave r in the third position is 3 times greater then the number of words that start with "r". Participants likely reported more words starting with r because its easier to think of them as it requires less effort - we do not have to calauclate what position the r is in (as we do with instances where it is the thrid letter) and is therefore under the avaliability heuristic judged to be more probable. Cause of death experiment asked participants to judge which cause of death was more likely- found that participants would judge causes of deaths that recieved extensive media coverage (ie tornados) to be more likely then ones that did not (ie asthma) despite asthma bieng more common then tornado deaths - this incidates that since they had been exposed to coverage of deaths by tornados more often it was easier to retireve in the mind and therefore judged to be more probable. Avaliability heuristic can lead to the right conclusions the instances where it leads to the wrong conclusions result from emphasis being given to a less frequent event

Answer 25

illusion like seeing something that is not really there and conjunctions like points of connection - illusory conjunctions therefore refers to seeing connections between things that are not really there

Answer 26

illusory conjunctions (seeing connections between two things that arent there) can also be stereotypes if we have generalized this connection to all members of a group. Since avaliability heuristics are ideas that something is more probable because it is more emphasized in our mind something that has become the sight of an illusory conjunction's prevalance can be misjudged due to avalibility heuristic and it can be generalized to all members of the group - resulting in stereotyping.

Answer 27

Tver sky like traverse sky a man who traverses the sky (is in heaven) we would expect to be a kind man (kahneman) as our representation of heaven is that kind people go there so in determining if a man will go to heaven we will compare him to other examples of people who have gone to heaven and see how well he resembles our represenations of people who go to heaven. The idea that we determine if something belongs to a particular by examining the degree to which it resembles our representatives of that group is used in Tversky and Kahnemans experiment. Tversky and Kahneman presented participants with a description of a man who was soft spoken, wore glasses, and was introverted and asked them to judge if he was more likely to be a librarian or a farmer. Participants judged him to be more likely to be a librarian because he fit their representaion of a librarian( we know that they did not judge based off of probability bc at that time being a farmer was more likely then being a librarian for men so the man would have a higher probability of being a farmer)- have found even in examples where peple demonstrated that if they knew that being a farmer was more common for males if just given a random male they would judge him more likely to be a farmer however if given the aforementioned description would judge him to be a librarian - indicating that represenatativeness was used more then base probability in making decisions.

Answer 28

That there is a lower probability of two events occuring together then there is of them occuring seperately. ex tversky and khanmen (when deciding if someone will traverse the sky (tversky) (go to heaven) according to the representative heuristic individuals will compare the individual with their representations of individuals who go to heaven which will likely be khanmen (like kind men - man kind as in people - kind people) Tversky and Khanmen representative heuristic - farmer vs librarian example, also showed that individuals will proritize using a representative heuristic to make decisions over statistical probabilities including the conjunction rule. Demonstrated this by giving participants a description of a woman who majored in philosopy, was outspoken and cared about issues relating to descrimination and socail justice and asking them to judge weather it would be more likley that she was a bank teller or a bankteller and a feminsit. Most participants selected the seond option as being more likely despite the fact that it violated the conjunction rule - since the second option fit with the representativeness heuristic illsutrates evidence of the representativeness heuristic being prioritized over the conjunction rule.

Answer 29

States that the larger a sample size is the more represenative of a population it will be because it has a lesser capacity to get skewed by outliers.

Answer 30

with heaven set criteria to meet so individuals in it even if a small group is examined are likely represenative of the other individuals in it in all the key points so khanmen traversing the sky tversky still sstnads however people will assume that other pops are like heaven where small sample size can accurately rep the pop according to tversky and khanmen even though this is not the case. Tversky and Khanmen presented participants with a problem said that there was a large hospital and a small hospital in a town - where on average 50% of the daily births were boys - then asked which hospital was more likley to have more days where over 50% of the births were boys 22% of participants said the large hospital, 22% of particpants said the small hospital and 56% of participants said that it would be equally as likely in both. The correct answere was the small hospital (bc there were less people so it is easier for its numbers to be skewed by outliers) however the majority of people did not realize this illustrating that the majority of people incorrectly believe that small sample sizes can accurately represent a population (violating the law of large numbers - that the larger a sample is the more reperesentative of the pop it becomes)

Answer 31

like biased towards taking my side - when people's attitudes about something are maintained even in the face of conflicting information and influence their perception of conflicting information, more likely to have perceive what goes against their beliefs as wrong Lord had particiapnts who were pro and anti death penalty gave them media that either suggested the death penalty did or did not deter crime. Instead of finding that their attitudes were changed by the media they found that their attitudes were amintained and rather their perception of the media was dictated by their attitudes- ex thoose who supported the death penalty were lkely to report an article that said it was not a deterent for crime as bieng unconvincing and vise versa..

Answer 32

Confirmation bias - is when we only look for evidence that will prove our thinking to be right instead of looking for evidence that will prove it wrong (which if there is none then it would be correct). Lord - had participants who supported and participants who opposed the death penalty gave each an exerpt that either suggested the death penalty was effective in reducing crime or was not effective in reducing crime. Found that participants would report an argument as being unconvincing if it did not fit with their beliefs. Overall this demonstrated that instead of having their arguments shaped by what the infomration they gained they had the reception of that information shaped by their arguments. This demonstrates the myside bias - is a specific type of confirmation bias because it relates to already certain ideas and not the process of attempting to gain certainity of an idea Wason - was on- was like past and on like where we are now, so we are on soemthing from the past 0- stuck with our initial idea- relates to the nature of confirmation bias - how it makes us more likely to stick with our initial idea as we only look for information that supports it. Told participants that he had created a pattern- had participants guess 3 numbers and he would tell them if they fit the rules of his pattern or not. The participants then had to guess what the rules of the pattern were. Found that the most frequent beggining guess was that the pattern was increasing by 2s. Found that some participants would then only attempt to use more sequences that increased by 2 and then would become certain thtat it indeed did (yes if we get something right more times there is a higher probabiliilty that it is true however we could also test to see if things that go aginst our hypothesis are true as well this would give us some of the same certainity with potentially fewer guesses) and got it wrong. Whereas participants who tested patterns that did not fit with their hypothesis were more likley to get it correctly.

Answer 33

Overall confirmation bias refers to when we only look for evidnce that we believe to be true and do not try to verify if evidence we believe to be false could be true --> blinds us against lots of possibility

Answer 34

We saw a video of a wine burg - wine fountain on line and did not question wether it was fake or not - this connects to Weinburgs findings. Weinburg showed participants a picture online of daises that were described as having birth defects caused by nuclear raidiation from fukishima - note the description did not give a source. Weinburg then asked participants weather or not they thought the post showed strong evidence of nuclear radition- found that 80% responded that it did whereas only 20% correctly responded that it did not. The picture was infact from japan but the diaseies did not have any defects indicates simmilar to the weinburg wine fountain how we often do not question the images that we encounter online.

Answer 35

Rhiefler like rifler - there was no evidence that Iraq had WMD but the bush administration spread this narrative in order to justify invading iraq (in jarhead deals with iraqi war and he is long range rife shooter - rifle like rheifler. Rheifler had participants (which included self identified very liberal, moderatly liberal/centrist and conservative individuals) read an article that Iraw had weapons of mass destruction. Then half the participants of all beliefs were given information that clarified that the article was false and half were not. Then all participants were asked to respond if the statement that "there were WMD in Iraq but Huessin destroyed them before the Bush invasion" was true or false. For very liberal participants found that participants who had been told the article was false were more likely to respond that the statment was false Moderate and Centrist participants from both the group who had been told the article was false and the one who had not were equally likely to believe the artcile - likely indicates myside bias - do not believe information that goes against their potential existing or created beleifs to be true Very conservative participants - found that participants who had been told that the information in the article was false were actually more likely to respond that the statement was true then participants who were not. This indicates the blackfire effect (blackfire like backfire - how presenting someone with evidence against a certain argument to disuade them from it might actually backfire as it might end up making them more loyal to that initial argument - if this were the case it would demonstrate the blackfire effect)

Answer 36

Availability heuristic: when something sticks out more in memory so we believe it represents it having happened more and therefore being more probable. Errors can occur when the event is emphasized for reasons other then frequency The conjunction rule refers to the fact that the probability of two events happening together is lower then the probblity of each individual event happening alone. Errors when people judge the probability of two events occuring together to by higher then the probability of each event happening alone. Illusory conjunction: When we percieve a connection between two events. Errors occur when the two events are not actually connected. Representative heuristic - when we decide if something fits into a specific category or not based on our representation of that category. Errors occur when presence of specific characteristics is not associated with membership of that group. What are base probabilites: statistics about the likelihood of something errors occur when they are ignored in favor of other heuristics Myside bias: When how people determine if evidence is relaible or not is impacted by their existing attitudes and beliefs (is a specific type of confirmation bias - note confirmation bias refers to both cases of myside bias where people dismiss evidence that does not fit their hypothesis and cases wehre poeople do not even look for counter information to their hypothesis (not myside bias- myside bias deals with perception of counter information not neglecting to look for it). Errors: when people fail to evaluate evidence without bias Law of large numbers: The fact that larger samples will be more representative of a population because they have less of a capacity to be skewed by outliers then small samples. Errors can occur when people deem small samples as representative Conformation bias: When people are only look for or believe evidence that affirms their hypothesis and do not look for or believe evidence that disconfrims it.

Answer 37

Starting from broad observations to make specific conclusions - opposite of inductive reasoning where we start from specific observations to make general conclusions. Ex of inductive reasoning - have one case of a non-musclar draft pick being a bad player decide that all non musclar men will be bad players. Ex of duductive reasoning - trying to decide if Mark is human know that he is an NBA player and that all previous NBA players have been humans so he must be a human. Inductive reasoning we use the content of one instance to make conclusions about many instances. go from in to out - (inside confined - confined from one instance to out) Deductive reasoning we use the content of many instances to make conclusions about one instance. Unlike in inductive reasoning in deductive reasoning since we use many instances to form conclusions about one instance so deductive reasoning can be said to be "definitely" as it is possible to have a representative sample size taking from many instances (if the number is sufficient) but impossible to have a representative sample size from few instances

Answer 38

SD - syllogisms are deductive reasoning (where we examine how something was expressed in many instances to conclude how it will be expressed in a specific instance). Syllogisms occur when a conclusion is drawn when a statement follows the form of A relation to B - B relation to C so A must have a relation to C that is a combination of its relation to B and B's relation to C. Ex. All of A are B All of B are C so since all of A are B and all of B are C then all of A must be C ex. All birds are animals All animals are living so therefore all birds must be living note all does not have to be the relation for A to B or B to C the relation for either of these could be "all", "some" or "none" Syllogisms were invented by aristotle

Answer 39

A syllogism being valid means that the conclusion about A's relation to C correctly combines A's relation to B and B's relation to C. However if one of the two premises are incorrect you could get a syllogism conclusion that has a relationship that matches the two statements without that conclusion being true. Ex. All birds are animals All animals have four legs Therefore all birds have four legs - the relationship between A and C does reflect A's relation to B and B's relation to C (so the relationship is correct under the given statements however one of the given statements is false - all animals do not have four legs) this makes it so that the syllogism is valid but not true. A syllogism can also be true without being valid Ex. All of the students are tired Some people who are tired are irritable Some of the students are irritable. Both statements are true however the relationship is false - in sentence A we specified that the students are tired but not that they are people (we know that the students are people) however they were mentioned in the specific group of being students so putting them in the group of people might result in too broad conclusions for that specific students- the second sentence should present one of the groups specified in the first sentence - not a broader group that this group fits into or else the syllogism is not valid.

Answer 40

When how likely the conclusion of the syllogism is to be true impacts our perception of the syllogisms validity - we assuem that incorrect conclusions come from invalid syllogisms even though this is not always the case

Answer 41

Asked participants to indicate if a syllogism was valid or not - had four possible syllogisms A valid syllogism where the conclusion was believeable A valid syllogism where the conclusion was not believable An invalid syllogism where the conclusion was believable An invalid syllogism where the conclusion was not believable Found that 80% of participants said that the valid believable syllogism was valid, 56% of participants said that the valid unbelievable syllogism was valid and 71% of participants said that the invalid believable syllogism was valid (indicates belief bias where we are more likely to judge a syllogism to be valid if it produces a believable conclusion - if the conclusion is correct the reasoning must be correct - not always the case).

Answer 42

Presenting all of A is B and some of B is C so some of A must be C wrong bc while all of A is B not all of B is A so the some of B that could be C might not be the B that is A

Answer 43

People imagine the principles of syllogistics in their minds if their is any exceptions that the syllogistic makes claims about thaat do not add up with their mental model they can conclude that the syllogistic is invalid The basic principle behind the mental model is that the conclusion is valid if no possible scenerio can serve as counter evidence to it this is one theory about how people solve syllogisms - there is no consensus yet about how people solve them.

Answer 44

a type of deductive reasoning (assume that the 2 premises were obtained from examining many instances - since they are used to make a conclusion about this instance we are making a conclusion about a specific instance so it is deductive reasoning) Ex. Statment one what will happen if I do something (q) What I did (p) What will happen in this scenerio

Answer 45

Mondus ponens p like positive means that the thing did happen so the the other thing must be true means a type of syllogistic that "affirms by affirming" Ex. If I study I will get a good grade I studied I studied so therefore I will get a good grade if it the second premise is positive (that we did the thing that the first sentence says another thing is dependent on) then we will get the conclusion q (where q can be seen as the conclusion regarding weather the event referenced in the first premise occured or not) this is the easiest to determine if it is valid or not, when given the p and q 97% of participants correctly identified that it was valid

Answer 46

take a toll get rid of negative no Here instead of saying what the final outcome was as our conclusion we say what it was as the second premise - this gives us the information that tells us what we must have done or not done according to the first premise to get the second premise (1 is final conculsion) Ex. If I studied I will get a good grade I did not get a good grade Therefore I did not study since we are given information that the final conclusion did not occur as our second premise our second premise is "not q" since p means positive that we did what need to be required in order to get a final conclusion of q since our second premise is not q our conclusion is "not p" harder to determine when given the p and q verision 60% of participants identified it as being valid

Answer 47

1. If I study I will get a good grade I got a good grade therefore I studied - is invalid - we said that studying will always result in a good grade but we did not say that good grades always result from studying we can not say final conclusion occured therefore p condition of first premise must have been met because first premise gives what final conclusion will always result from doing a specific thing but does not assert that the final conclusion can only be obtained through doing the specific thing 40% of participants recognized that this was invalid If I study I will get a good grade I did not study Therefore I did not get a good grade - again we said that studying gaurentees a good grade but did not say that good grades can only be gotten through studying so this is invalid - 40% of participants were able to identify that it was invalid this is in the format of not p therefore not q

Answer 48

Wason - like how people will stick to Wason stick to their past infomation - confirmation bias (the 3 number pattern experiment) told participants to test the following theory "Only cards with vowels on the front will have odd numbers on the back" by selecting a card out of a theoretical list to pick up, participants were given the options of a card that had a 7, a 4, a E, and a K Found that 53% of participants correctly identified that one of the steps to determing if the rule was correct was lifting up the E this shows t 46% of participants said that you would have to lift up the 4 - this demonstrates an issue with condtional syllogistic because we specified that cards with vowels on the front will have odd numbers on the back but we did not say as a rule that cards with odd numbers on the front must have vowels on the back - if p then q does not = if q therefore p has occured 4% of participants correctly identified that you would have to flip over the K (this would demonstrate that if there was an odd number on the back that the rule did not hold true) looking for k would follow the principle of falseification - which describes that in order to know that something is true we must first check for evidence that it is false and if there is none then we can know that it is true

Answer 49

Griggs and Cox - griggs like rigss a cop they transformed the experiment to involve a cop trying to falsify a conditional syllogistic Griggs and Cox asked participants how they would test a rule that everybody drinking beer must be over 19 in terms of which cards they would flip included person drinking beer, 16 years old, 24 years old, and person drinking soda we would flip the person drinking beer card bc if they are drinking beer we would have to know that they are over age We would not flip the 24 year old card bc the reverse logic is not true - it does not mean that someone is 19 because they are drinking beer and we would flip the 16 year old card because we are looking for a falseification and if they are drinking beer it would demonstrate a falsification - Griggs and Cox thought that this example might be easier for participants because it dealt with things that were more familliar. 73% of participants got the beer example which had the saem conditions as wasons vowel card example except stated in less abstract terms - indicates that peopole do better solving conditional syllogistics wihen the syllogistic deals with something they are familliar with

Answer 50

Holyoak (holy oak had the example when oaks might have been considered holy where soliders had to take many roads to attack the dictator to see if it wouldl help with analogical problem solving for the tumor problem - this was with glick) - according to a permission schema if an individual satisfies a certain condition then they get to do a certain thing ex. if a person is over 19 then they can be served beer

Answer 51

People are evolutionarily on the look out for cheaters so when imagining peole with conditions they want to make sure that no one has violated the rules

Answer 52

Utility - like use practiclaity if we are practical we are intune with the world and what is needed from us in it - therefore we will have a sense of the best outcome based on logic -- expected utiloity theory asserts that people are inherently logical According to expected utility theory people will take actions that bring them as close as possible to their goals.

Answer 53

Epstein and Raj, Epstien against good outcomes and did not behave in a way that brought good ouctomes shwos that people will not always behave in the ways that will bring them the best outcomes --> simmilar to epstein and Raj's work disproving the utility theory Epstein and Raj told participants if they selected a red jellybean from a bowl then they would get a monetary reward gave participants two options for which bowl they wanted to draw from a) a bowl with 100 white jellybeans and 7 red jellybeans (gave them a 7% chance of getting the reward) b) a bowl with 1 red jellybean and 10 white jellybeans (gave them a 10% chance og getting the reward) found that many participants chose option a) despite having a lower probability of giving them a reward when asked why they made this choice the participants said that they knew option a had worse probability but it gave them an impression that they had a greater chance of winning because it had a larger number (even though it was a smaller proportion) of red jellybeans then bowl b)

Answer 54

Participants who had been doing well and had the banks offers increase were more likely to be cautious and accept the banks offers participants who had been doing poorly and experience the banks offers go down were more likely to reject the banks offers even when they knew that the probability was against them - this was because they did not want to feel like a total loser and wanted to take the risk of beating the odds redemning themselves even if it was unlikley (they also might be against taking help from something that has decreased what it will give them - do not want to look like they will accept a lesser deal)

Answer 55

Weather the individual thinks that their unhapiness created by loss would be greater then their happiness created by gain (this demonstrates expected emotions because they are predicting their emotions)

Answer 56

Kremer gave participants 5 dollars told participants that if they flipped a coin and it landed on heads they could get an additional 5 dollars leaving them with a total of 10 dollars but if they flipped tails then they would lose 3 dollars leaving them with a total of 2 dollars. Before doing the coin flip kremer asked participants to rate how they would feel if each outcome happened found that participants ratings for how unhappy they would feel at losing 3 dollars were greater then their feelings of happiness if they gained 5 dollars. Then had participants flip the coin and then do a filler task for 10 minutes then asked the participants to rate their emotions. Found that participants scores for how unhappy they would be were a lot less then they had predicted whereas their scores for how happy they would be were a little bit less then they had predicted- leading to the two scores being close to equal. Explained that participants had overestimated how unhappy they would be made by the loss likely because they had not anticipated how at the time of experiencing the loss they might reframe the situation as a coping mechanism. Ex in order to avoid being too unhappy over the loss lots of participants focused on the fact that they had still gained 2 dollars- they likely did not consider this at the time of their prediction bc they were only focusing on the loss.

Answer 57

Emotions that an individual is feeling at the time that they are presented with the decision that are not related to the decision but can still impact the actions that they end up taking

Answer 58

If there are more potential action choices individuals will be more likley to choose inaction then if there are less possible choices

Answer 59

Presented all doctor participants with the choice to give a cesaran section or not to a hypothetical patient doctors were split into groups that differed on the prior hypothetical patients they were given before hand 1. control group - not given any information about previous patients 2. serious conditon group - were given hypothetical patients who had all had complicated births 3. not serious group - were given hypothetical patients who had all had simple easy births found that 50% of the control group said that they would give a c-section, found that the %age of the serious condition group who had said that they would give a c-section was actually lower then the control group (this is likely because the hypothetical seemed easier compared to the other births so it seemed like it required less intense attention). 75% of the not serious group choose to give a c-section this is likely bc in contrast with the previous examples the hypothetical situation seemed more severe and therefore more likley to need more intervention. Not what I thought I thought they would have been superstitiuos as in bad happened so bad will happen again or good happened so good will happen again. context has also been shown to impact judges decision if they would approve parole or not, it is a zangier like zinger of a conclusion because suggests that decision is hardly based on the context of the case and more based on weather the judge has eaten recently or not in Danzangiers review of cases found that 0% of cases examiend before the judge had had lunch were approved for parole whereas 65% of the ones reviewed after the judge had had lunch were approved for parole.

Answer 60

Yes camera experiment condition one participants were presented with a camera that cost 170$ and a camera that cost 240$ found that participants were just as likely to choose either condition two participants presented with the 170$ camera, a 240$ camera and now a 400$ camera found that they were now most likley to pick the 240$ camera maybe becasue now there seemed to be a greater spectrum of implied quality based on the price difference so thought they were caluclating both price and quality and then were more likely to choose the middle option for both

Answer 61

85% of americans support organ donation but only 28% of them are donors this occurs because you ahve to opt in to become an organ donor so demonstrates that if more effort is required to do something people will be less likely to decide to do it even if they agree with the choice (amplified by the fact that in france an opt out procedure is used and 99% of people are organ donors) What is status uo bias - peoples tendancy to stick with what has already been established rather then put in effort to make an alternative decision - peoples tendancy to stick with whatever is presented to them as the default