Chapter 12: World History Flashcards
1
Q
What is the difference between history and historiography?
A
History is the writing down of everything that ever happened, while historiography is the philosophy of history that examines what the act of writing accomplishes and where the historical process leads.
2
Q
Who are the two great Greek historians mentioned?
A
Herodotus and Thucydides
3
Q
What did Herodotus focus on in his historical writings?
A
The Persian wars
4
Q
What is Thucydides known for?
A
His work on the Peloponnesian War
5
Q
Describe Herodotus’ style as a historian.
A
Expansive, digressive, myth-minded, insatiably curious, and gossipy.
6
Q
Describe Thucydides’ style as a historian.
A
Concentrated, critical, clinical, and obsessed with methodology.
7
Q
What is Livy’s role in Roman history?
A
He wrote glorifying accounts of Rome’s history, often serving as a PR person for the state.
8
Q
What perspective does Tacitus provide in his historical writings?
A
A critical view of Rome’s decline, emphasizing moral decay and political corruption.
9
Q
Who were the two significant German historians mentioned?
A
Leopold von Ranke and Theodor Mommsen
10
Q
What was Leopold von Ranke’s contribution to history?
A
He emphasized viewing every epoch in its own terms and applied scientific principles to historical analysis.
11
Q
What is the main focus of Theodor Mommsen’s historical work?
A
Based on coins, inscriptions, and artifacts rather than legends and myths.
12
Q
What are the characteristics of Macaulay’s historical writing?
A
Self-satisfied, optimistic, and well-paced storytelling.
13
Q
What was Thomas Carlyle’s main thesis about history?
A
The Hero, not the Establishment or the State, drives historical evolution.
14
Q
Fill in the blank: Frederick Jackson Turner described the frontier as ‘the _______ of American civilization.’
A
cutting edge
15
Q
What controversial view did Charles A. Beard hold regarding the Constitution?
A
He viewed it as an economic document reflecting the interests of its framers.
16
Q
What critique did Beard face about his historical interpretations?
A
He was accused of manipulating facts and overlooking evidence.
17
Q
What did Beard argue about the causes of the Civil War?
A
He claimed it was a collision between old agrarian and new industrial cultures, not primarily about slavery.
18
Q
True or False: Ranke was known for his liberal views on history.
A
False
19
Q
What is the significance of the phrase ‘wie es eigentlich gewesen’ in Ranke’s work?
A
It means ‘how it really was,’ reflecting his objective approach to history.
20
Q
What common theme is found in the historical writings of both Livy and Tacitus?
A
Both provide one-sided views, with Livy focusing on glorification and Tacitus on moral critique.
21
Q
How did the Victorian context influence Macaulay and Carlyle’s historical perspectives?
A
Macaulay embraced progress and civilization, while Carlyle critiqued the Establishment and focused on individual heroes.
22
Q
What did Turner argue was essential for American democracy?
A
The existence of an area of free land and the westward expansion of settlement.
23
Q
Fill in the blank: Mommsen sought to bring a more vivid knowledge of classical antiquity to _______.
A
wider circles
24
Q
What does the author suggest about the role of history in civilization?
A
History, if intelligently conceived, may be an instrument of civilization.
This idea is expressed in the introduction of a textbook co-written by the author and his wife.
25
How does St. Augustine view the events in human history?
The Fall, the Incarnation, and the Resurrection are the big events, with history being a glorious unfolding.
## Footnote
Augustine believes that history is not cyclical but part of a divine plan.
26
What is Vico's perspective on history?
History is the work of men who can love and understand it, undergoing an ordered progression through stages.
## Footnote
Vico posits that nations progress from primitive to divine, heroic, and finally civil stages.
27
What does Voltaire reject in his historical perspective?
Voltaire rejects Providence and argues that events are more influenced by chance than by design.
## Footnote
He proposes a history based on the shared natural rights and faculties of all men.
28
What is the Volksgeist according to Herder?
The Volksgeist is the national character that arises from the common people and their native roots.
## Footnote
Herder emphasizes that different nations have unique cultures and histories.
29
Describe Hegel's view on the progression of history.
Hegel believes history follows a dialectic process where a thesis and its antithesis lead to a synthesis, with the State being the embodiment of reason and liberty.
## Footnote
He sees the fragmentation of Germany as a precursor to its eventual unity.
30
What does Spengler argue about culture and history?
Spengler asserts that culture goes through four historical phases and ultimately falls into decay, predicting imminent Asiatic domination.
## Footnote
He believes this pattern is inevitable for all civilizations.
31
What is Edward Gibbon's central thesis in 'The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'?
Gibbon argues that Christianity was the central destructive force in the collapse of Roman civilization.
## Footnote
He critiques Christianity for undermining the Empire's defenses against barbarian invasions.
32
How does Gibbon's writing style contribute to his historical narrative?
Gibbon's work is characterized by balance, precision, wit, and a narrative style that engages readers.
## Footnote
His footnotes are particularly noted for their humor and insight.
33
What is Arnold Toynbee's view on the nature of civilization?
Toynbee views civilization as a movement characterized by cycles of rise, flourishing, breakdown, and fall, driven by 'challenge and response'.
## Footnote
He believes civilizations decline due to both external and internal factors.
34
What criticism do professional historians have of Toynbee's methodology?
Historians criticize Toynbee for twisting evidence, methodological issues, and reaching untestable conclusions.
## Footnote
His approach is often seen as didactic and overly deterministic.
35
What is the significance of Jules Michelet in French historiography?
Michelet is considered the great national historian of France, contributing significantly to the understanding of French history.
## Footnote
His works reflect the revolutionary spirit of his time.
36
Who is considered the great national historian of France?
Jules Michelet (1798-1874)
## Footnote
Michelet is known for his work L'Histoire de France and his emotional and intuitive approach to history.
37
What was Jules Michelet's perspective on history?
He believed in the importance of the masses and sought to resurrect medieval France, emphasizing geography and climate's influence on governance.
## Footnote
Michelet is noted for his emotional style and bias as he extended the narrative to his own time.
38
Define 'positivism' as per Auguste Comte.
A scientific attitude that rejects sweeping generalizations and focuses on observable facts and verifiable laws.
## Footnote
Comte divided history into three stages: theological, metaphysical, and scientific.
39
What are the three stages of history according to Auguste Comte?
* Theological
* Metaphysical
* Scientific
40
What concept did Henri de Saint-Simon advocate for in society?
Reorganization under a governing elite of scientists, financiers, and industrialists.
## Footnote
Saint-Simon's ideas influenced later thinkers like Marx and John Stuart Mill.
41
What was Hippolyte Taine's view of history?
He considered history as 'mechanics applied to psychology' and believed in assembling facts to derive laws governing human behavior.
## Footnote
Taine posited that culture is determined by race, milieu, and moment.
42
What did Ernest Renan attempt to explain in his historical works?
He sought to explain Christ's Resurrection without using terms like 'divinity' and 'miracle'.
43
Who is Alexis de Tocqueville and what was his significant contribution?
A political thinker who distinguished between liberty and democracy, warning about 'the tyranny of the majority'.
## Footnote
Tocqueville predicted that the United States would become a leading world power.
44
What is Jacob Burckhardt known for?
His work Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, which defined the Renaissance and its cultural significance.
## Footnote
Burckhardt emphasized individualism and the arts during the Renaissance.
45
What was Benedetto Croce's approach to history?
He defended history against scientific incursions and emphasized empathy in understanding historical events.
## Footnote
Croce's work was influential in shaping Italian historiography.
46
What did Fernand Braudel focus on in his historical analysis?
He emphasized the social sciences and everyday life over political events, examining long-term historical structures.
## Footnote
Braudel is associated with the Annales school of historiography.
47
What is A. J. P. Taylor's notable work?
The Origins of the Second World War, which controversially portrayed Hitler in a more traditional statesman role.
## Footnote
Taylor was known for his engaging lectures and numerous publications.
48
Who was Richard Hofstadter and what were his interests?
A major American historian focused on cultural and political issues like the New Deal and McCarthyism.
## Footnote
Hofstadter was known for his approachable style and willingness to revise his interpretations.
49
What did Michel Foucault explore in his historical inquiries?
He examined the relationship between truth and power, and how discourses shape societal norms.
## Footnote
Foucault's concept of 'episteme' refers to the shifts in knowledge frameworks across historical periods.
50
Fill in the blank: Auguste Comte divided history into three stages: the theological, the metaphysical, and the _______.
scientific
51
True or False: Alexis de Tocqueville was primarily a historian.
False
52
What did Barbara Tuchman focus on in her historical narratives?
She analyzed folly and doom in historical events, such as in The Guns of August and The Proud Tower.
## Footnote
Tuchman was known for her storytelling ability and engaging writing style.
53
What is the significance of the term 'la faculté maîtresse' as posited by Hippolyte Taine?
It refers to the dominant faculty that determines culture, influenced by race, milieu, and moment.
## Footnote
Taine's ideas suggest a scientific approach to understanding cultural phenomena.
54
What was the primary focus of the Age of Reason?
The relationship between liberty and social coercion, or truth and power.
55
Who were Justinian and Theodora?
A couple who significantly shaped the Byzantine Empire.
56
What notable legal code did Justinian establish?
The Justinian Code.
57
Who was Heloise?
The brilliant niece of a canon and the lover of Peter Abelard.
58
What event led to Peter Abelard's castration?
Heloise's uncle hired thugs to attack him.
59
What was the outcome of Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine's marriage?
They formed a powerful alliance but had a tumultuous relationship.
60
What did Ferdinand and Isabella initiate to consolidate their power?
The Spanish Inquisition.
61
What was the result of the Spanish Inquisition?
The expulsion of Jews and Moors and the establishment of a strong Catholic monarchy.
62
What was the Glorious Revolution?
William of Orange unseated James II in a bloodless coup.
63
What did William and Mary achieve in England?
They undermined the concept of absolute monarchy.
64
What was the relationship between Napoléon and Joséphine?
An unlikely match characterized by infidelities and political ambition.
65
What significant event happened in 1453?
The end of the Hundred Years' War.
66
What was the Edict of Nantes?
A declaration by Henry IV granting civil and religious rights to Huguenots.
67
What did the Peace of Westphalia end?
The Thirty Years' War.
68
What was the main idea of Rousseau's Social Contract?
Individuals surrender natural liberty to form a General Will.
69
What major political assembly occurred in 1815?
The Congress of Vienna.
70
Fill in the blank: The couple that became known as the 'Catholic kings' were _______ and Isabella.
Ferdinand.
71
True or False: Eleanor of Aquitaine supported the arts while Henry II fought the Church.
True.
72
Who was often referred to as 'the emperor never sleeps'?
Justinian.
73
What did the marriage of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt symbolize?
A powerful political partnership.
74
What was Joséphine's role during Napoléon's rise to power?
She maintained a fashionable salon in Paris.
75
What was the impact of the Hundred Years' War on the concept of chivalry?
The war marked the decline of chivalry.
76
What did the Edict of Nantes signify for French Protestants?
It granted them civil and religious rights.
77
Fill in the blank: The relationship between Mao Zedong and Jiang Qing was marked by _______.
Marital problems.
78
What was the significance of the Glorious Revolution?
It established parliamentary supremacy over the crown.
79
What was a key characteristic of the relationship between Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine?
Power struggle and ambition.
80
True or False: The Spanish Inquisition was initiated to increase family loyalty among local nobles.
True.
81
What did Rousseau's ideas in the Social Contract eventually contribute to?
The French Revolution.
82
What is the concept of the General Will according to Rousseau?
The General Will is the true sovereign power, rather than a king or parliament.
## Footnote
Rousseau's ideas contributed to democracy and nationalism, influencing the French Revolution.
83
What significant event did the Congress of Vienna address?
The Congress of Vienna addressed the balance of power in Europe after the defeat of Napoleon.
## Footnote
The four great powers involved were England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
84
What was the primary goal of the diplomats at the Congress of Vienna?
To suppress liberalism, nationalism, and democracy that emerged after the French Revolution.
## Footnote
Key figures included Prince Metternich and Baron Talleyrand.
85
What was the outcome of the 1848 revolutions in Europe?
The revolutions challenged the existing order but resulted in a return to power for the ruling classes.
## Footnote
Issues included nationalism and broadened suffrage.
86
What was the main consequence of the 1848 revolutions?
A legacy of class hatred and national jealousy, along with the groundwork for Marxism.
## Footnote
The Communist Manifesto was published in January 1848.
87
Who opened Japan to American trade in 1854?
Commodore Perry.
## Footnote
Perry threatened military action if Japan did not agree to trade terms.
88
What transformation did Japan undergo after opening its trade?
Japan experienced rapid Westernization in laws, technology, and bureaucracy.
## Footnote
This transformation occurred within a short period.
89
What key meeting took place at Yalta in 1945?
A meeting between Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin to discuss post-war arrangements.
## Footnote
The meeting addressed how to deal with defeated Germany and Japan.
90
Who was Louis XIII?
Louis XIII was a timid and sickly king who ruled from 1601 to 1643.
## Footnote
He struggled with asserting his power against his regent mother and Cardinal Richelieu.
91
What was Cardinal Richelieu known for?
Richelieu was known for consolidating the power of the monarchy through suppression of Protestants and curbing the nobles.
## Footnote
He was also a key figure in the Thirty Years' War.
92
What was Louis XIV's motto?
'L'état c'est moi.'
## Footnote
This means 'I am the state.'
93
Who were the main mistresses of Louis XIV?
Marie Thérèse of Spain, Duchesse de la Vallière, Mme. de Montespan, and Mme. de Maintenon.
## Footnote
Each had a significant impact on his personal life and reign.
94
Who was Louis XV and what was his governing style?
Louis XV was known as 'le Bien-Aimé' but was ultimately unpopular due to his lack of interest in ruling.
## Footnote
He engaged in court intrigue and gossip rather than effective governance.
95
What was the primary criticism of Louis XVI?
He was seen as flabby, sluggish, and lacking leadership qualities.
## Footnote
Louis XVI's interests included food, his wife, and hunting.
96
Fill in the blank: Louis XVI was executed on _______.
July 14, 1789.
## Footnote
This event marked a significant turning point in the French Revolution.
97
What was the significance of the Treaty of Vienna?
It established a balance of power that lasted until World War I.
## Footnote
The treaty favored Britain and managed the rivalry between Prussia and Austria.
98
What qualities did Louis possess that made him unsuitable to be king?
Humble, shy, poor dancer, slow reader, lacked will to lead
## Footnote
Despite his piety and good-heartedness, he did not exhibit leadership qualities.
99
What were Louis's main interests?
Food, his wife, hunting
## Footnote
He prioritized hunting above all, considering a day without it not truly lived.
100
What significant event occurred on July 14, 1789, in Louis's diary?
"Nothing."
## Footnote
This reflects his disinterest in the political climate and events surrounding him.
101
How was Marie Antoinette characterized in contrast to Louis?
Majestic, charming, sophisticated, proud, frivolous
## Footnote
She was the Archduchess of Austria and represented traits opposite to Louis.
102
What was the nature of Louis and Marie Antoinette's marriage?
Unconsummated for eight years due to a genital malformation
## Footnote
This contributed to their strained relationship.
103
What nickname was given to Marie Antoinette and why?
Madame Déficit
## Footnote
This name reflected her extravagant spending habits.
104
What was the French public's perception of Marie Antoinette's Austrian background?
Unforgivable
## Footnote
The public was unaware of her mother's intentions to use her as a political tool.
105
Who was Maurepas and what was his impact on financial reforms?
An old courtier who missed opportunities to quell court factions and opposed Turgot's reforms
## Footnote
His jealousy hindered necessary financial changes.
106
Who was Necker and what led to his prominence?
A conservative financier who gained prominence due to his ambitious wife
## Footnote
He faced opposition from Marie Antoinette and his policies were ineffective when he regained power.
107
What was the outcome of Maurepas's refusal to support financial reforms?
Contributed to the Revolution occurring eight years later
## Footnote
His inaction had long-term consequences for France.
108
Fill in the blank: Louis cared about food, his wife, and _______.
the hunt.
109
What were the Persian Wars?
A series of conflicts (500-499 B.C.) where the Greeks, notably Athens and Sparta, defeated the Persian Empire.
110
What significant victory did Athens achieve during the Persian Wars?
A big victory at Marathon.
111
What was the outcome of the Battle of Thermopylae?
Sparta and Athens suffered a famous defeat.
112
What naval victory did the Greeks achieve in 480 B.C. during the Persian Wars?
A big naval victory at Salamis.
113
Who was the Persian king defeated during the Persian Wars?
Xerxes I.
114
What was the Peloponnesian War?
A conflict (431-404 B.C.) between Athens and Sparta, with Athens initially trying to wear down Sparta.
115
What was the Delian League?
An alliance led by Athens during the Peloponnesian War.
116
What ultimately ruined Athens during the Peloponnesian War?
Miscalculations and a plague.
117
Who wrote about the Peloponnesian War?
Thucydides.
118
What were the Punic Wars?
Three wars (264-146 B.C.) between Rome and Carthage.
119
What was the outcome of the first Punic War?
Rome expelled Carthage from Sicily.
120
Who famously crossed the Alps to invade Rome during the second Punic War?
Hannibal.
121
What was the result of the third Punic War?
Rome completely destroyed Carthage.
122
What is feudalism?
A political system where vassals pledge loyalty to a lord in exchange for land.
123
What are the three periods of the Middle Ages?
* Early Middle Ages (476-1000) * High Middle Ages (1000-1300) * Late Middle Ages (1300-1500)
124
Who was Thomas à Becket?
A twelfth-century martyr and Archbishop of Canterbury assassinated in 1170.
125
What is Thomas Aquinas known for?
Being a scholastic philosopher who integrated faith and reason.
126
What did Thomas à Kempis author?
The Imitation of Christ.
127
Who was Thomas More?
A sixteenth-century humanist and author of Utopia.
128
What did John Wyclif advocate for?
Reading the Bible in English and minimizing the church's possessions.
129
What movement did John Huss lead?
Turning the Hussites into a Czech national movement.
130
What is John Calvin known for?
His doctrine of predestination and the Institutes of the Christian Religion.
131
What did John Knox establish in Scotland?
Presbyterianism.
132
What does Jacobean describe?
The cultural period during James I's rule in Britain.
133
What were the Jacobites trying to achieve?
Restoring the Stuart descendants to the English throne.
134
What does Jacobin refer to?
Radicals during the French Revolution who met in a monastery.
135
What is jacquerie?
A term related to peasant revolts, derived from the name 'Jacques.'
136
What term is used to describe radicals or extreme leftists who carry on the revolution at any cost?
Jacobin
## Footnote
The Bolsheviks, behind Russia's 1917 revolution, are this century's most famous Jacobins.
137
What does the term 'jacquerie' refer to?
An insurrection of peasants
## Footnote
Originating from the French nickname for a peasant, 'Jacques', it describes uprisings such as the one in France in 1358.
138
Who were the Puritans?
Extreme, Calvinistic Protestants in seventeenth-century England
139
What is the significance of the Pilgrims?
Puritans who left England for Holland in 1608 and arrived at Plymouth Rock in 1620
140
What were the Roundheads known for?
They were Puritan followers of Oliver Cromwell during the English Civil War.
141
What did the Levellers advocate for in Cromwellian England?
Almost-universal male suffrage, a written constitution, and other democratic reforms
142
What was the primary action of the Luddites?
They destroyed machinery in factories due to unemployment caused by the Industrial Revolution.
143
What was the aim of the Chartists?
To promote universal adult male suffrage and other electoral reforms
144
What did the term 'Whigs' originate from?
A group opposing the pro-French, pro-Catholic policies of Charles II
145
Who were the Tories?
The supporters of Charles II, consisting of the lesser aristocracy and Anglican clergy
146
What is the definition of a colony?
A company of people transplanted somewhere for the purpose of settling it
147
What is a protectorate?
An imperial power that takes over in the name of the existing ruler
148
What is a dominion?
A well-regarded colony that is largely self-governing while still tied to the mother country
149
What is the difference between a mandate and a trusteeship?
A mandate is a territory assigned to a power after a war, while a trusteeship involves international supervision.
150
What was the Boer War?
A conflict from 1899 to 1902 between Britain and the Boer republics in South Africa
151
What triggered the Boxer Rebellion?
A Chinese secret society's uprising against foreign influence in China
152
Who were the Redshirts?
Garibaldi's forces that helped unify Italy
153
What were Hitler's Brownshirts known as?
Sturmabteilung (SA), the Nazi stormtroopers
154
What does 'epoch' mean in historical terms?
A date of an occurrence that starts things going in a new direction
155
What is the definition of an 'era'?
The time during which an epoch continues and establishes itself
156
Who was Karl Marx?
A German philosopher born in 1818, influential in social, economic, and philosophical ideas
157
What influenced Karl Marx's ideas?
The French Revolution, the British Industrial Revolution, and German philosophy
158
What did Marx famously say about his relationship to Marxism?
Je ne suis pas un Marxiste.
159
Who was Karl Marx influenced by?
Social ideas from the French Revolution, economic ideas from the British Industrial Revolution, and philosophical ideas from Germany
## Footnote
Notable influence includes Hegel and the Young Hegelians.
160
What philosophical method did Marx adopt from Hegel?
Dialectical method
## Footnote
This involves the thesis-antithesis-synthesis dynamic.
161
What is the central question that Marx's system addresses?
What makes history go, and where?
## Footnote
This relates to the forces that drive historical change.
162
What concept combines dialectics and materialism in Marx's philosophy?
Dialectical materialism
## Footnote
This asserts that material conditions shape social relations.
163
What are the two interrelated aspects Marx identifies in his theory?
* Economic 'base'
* Social 'superstructure'
## Footnote
The base influences the character of the superstructure.
164
According to Marx, what defines the 'general character of the social, political, and spiritual processes of life'?
Relations of production
## Footnote
These are influenced by the economic base.
165
Fill in the blank: Marx argues that it is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but _______.
their existence that determines their consciousness.
166
What does Marx suggest about social systems and change?
They contain seeds of contradiction leading to revolution
## Footnote
This is part of dialectics, where opposing forces create change.
167
What did Marx believe would happen to the bourgeois class?
It would be overwhelmed by the proletariat
## Footnote
The proletariat is the working class that capitalism exploits.
168
What did Marx predict would happen in 1848?
A revolution leading to a classless society
## Footnote
He believed society was not ready for this transformation.
169
What is the fundamental principle of wealth distribution in Marx's vision?
'To each according to his needs, from each according to his ability.'
170
Who was Friedrich Engels?
A collaborator of Marx, patient, intelligent, and a wealthy textile manufacturer.
## Footnote
He provided financial support to Marx and worked closely with him.
171
What is the 'relative autonomy' of the superstructure?
The idea that the superstructure can interact with and influence the economic base
## Footnote
Engels elaborated on this concept.
172
Fill in the blank: Lenin emphasized the need for a _______ to organize the revolution.
powerful vanguard party.
173
What did Rosa Luxemburg advocate for in revolutionary movements?
Spontaneity in worker-originated actions
## Footnote
She criticized Lenin's centralism.
174
What is the focus of Luxemburg's major theoretical work, The Accumulation of Capital?
The inevitability of capitalism's collapse due to its contradictions
## Footnote
She argued that capitalism relies on noncapitalist markets.
175
What was Stalin's interpretation of the dictatorship of the proletariat?
Dictatorship by Stalin
## Footnote
He centralized power and enacted oppressive policies.
176
What was Leon Trotsky known for in the context of the Russian Revolution?
Organizing the Red Army and leading it to success
## Footnote
He had conflicts with Lenin and Stalin over revolutionary strategy.
177
Fill in the blank: Trotsky advocated for _______ revolution.
permanent.
178
What was Trotsky's view on the success of revolution?
It depended on continuous expansion both within Russia and in other nations.
179
What was Trotsky's theory that conflicted with Stalin's views?
Permanent revolution
## Footnote
Trotsky believed in continuous revolution both within Russia and in Europe.
180
What was Stalin's theory that opposed Trotsky's ideas?
Socialism in one country
## Footnote
This theory prioritized nurturing the revolution at home.
181
What ultimately happened to Trotsky?
He was assassinated in Mexico by Stalin's agent
## Footnote
Trotsky was killed with an ice ax.
182
How was 'Trotskyism' viewed by Stalin?
As a fiction invented out of paranoia
## Footnote
Despite this, Trotsky and some others fervently believed in its validity.
183
Who is known for the last truly great cult of personality among Marxists?
Mao Zedong
## Footnote
His charisma and aphorisms significantly impacted Chinese society.
184
What unique contribution did Mao Zedong make to Marxism?
The idea of peasant revolution
## Footnote
This was significant in a country with many oppressed peasants and few industrial workers.
185
What was the Hundred Flowers Campaign?
A movement encouraging criticism of the Party
## Footnote
It quickly spiraled out of control.
186
What is the central concept of Georg Lukács' work?
Totality
## Footnote
He argued that bourgeois society prevents true knowledge of reality.
187
Define reification according to Georg Lukács.
The process by which social relations are transformed into commodity relations
## Footnote
This leads to individuals becoming mere objects.
188
What is Antonio Gramsci best known for in Marxist theory?
The concept of hegemony
## Footnote
He emphasized the role of intellectuals in preserving the ruling class's dominance.
189
What does Gramsci suggest to combat hegemony?
Creating a counterculture
## Footnote
This counterculture would challenge the prevailing ideology.
190
What was Herbert Marcuse's notable contribution to Marxism?
Joining politics with sex
## Footnote
This idea became synonymous with the counterculture of the Sixties.
191
What did Marcuse believe about society and liberation?
We could afford to liberate Eros
## Footnote
He believed this would lead to freedom and happiness.
192
Who was Louis Althusser?
A contemporary Marxist theorist known for his complex ideas
## Footnote
He combined structuralism with Marxism.
193
What does Althusser mean by 'theoretical practice'?
Knowledge working on its object
## Footnote
This leads to a view of society as a totality.
194
What is the key concept of Althusser's structure of society?
Tri-partite division of economy, politics, and ideology
## Footnote
Each is relatively autonomous but united in a larger structure.
195
What is the Dreyfus Affair?
A scandal involving Captain Alfred Dreyfus, accused of treason
## Footnote
It highlighted issues of anti-Semitism and justice in France.
196
What was the public reaction to Dreyfus' conviction?
France was divided into Dreyfusards and anti-Dreyfusards
## Footnote
The former group sought justice while the latter defended the military.
197
Who wrote the famous open letter 'J'accuse'?
Emile Zola
## Footnote
He wrote to expose the injustices of the Dreyfus Affair.
198
What was the outcome for Dreyfus by 1906?
He was cleared of all charges
## Footnote
His innocence was later proven by secret German documents.
199
What was the outcome of the Dreyfus Affair in 1906?
Dreyfus was cleared of all charges
## Footnote
This followed public outcry and the eventual publication of secret German documents revealing the true culprit.
200
What were the repercussions of the Dreyfus Affair in France?
* Discredited royalist elements
* Brought left wing to political power
* Rise of antimilitarism and anticlericalism
* Hastened separation of church and state
* Exposed French anti-Semitism
201
Who assassinated Archduke Francis Ferdinand?
Gavrilo Princip
## Footnote
He was a member of the Black Hand, a secret society.
202
What event triggered the declaration of World War I?
The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand
203
What was Austria's ultimatum to Serbia after the assassination?
Austria demanded to participate in suppressing anti-Austrian sentiment and punishing conspirators.
204
What alliances were formed in response to rising tensions in Europe before World War I?
* Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy)
* Triple Entente (France, Russia, Great Britain)
205
What was the significance of the Balkans in the lead-up to World War I?
They were a hotspot of rivalry between Austro-Hungarians and Russians, contributing to tensions.
206
What was the general attitude of European powers towards Germany in the early 1900s?
They viewed Germany as ambitious, truculent, and devious, leading to paranoia.
207
What was the impact of Darwinism on the mindset of European leaders before World War I?
It fostered a belief that military strength would determine survival, making war seem inevitable.
208
When did World War II officially begin?
September 1, 1939
209
What was the state of Spain before the Spanish Civil War?
Spain experienced instability after the fall of King Alfonso XIII, leading to a shaky republican government.
210
What actions did the republican government in Spain take to reform the country?
* Separated Church from State
* Broke up large estates
* Gave local autonomy to Catalans and Basques
211
What triggered the Spanish Civil War in 1936?
A military revolt led by General Francisco Franco against the republican government.
212
What were the two main factions in the Spanish Civil War?
* Republicans (Loyalists)
* Nationalists (Rebels)
213
What role did foreign powers play in the Spanish Civil War?
* Hitler and Mussolini supported the Nationalists
* Stalin supported the Republicans
214
What was the outcome of the Spanish Civil War?
The Nationalists, led by Franco, defeated the Republicans in 1939.
215
What was the significance of the bombing of Guernica?
It became a symbol of the horrors of war and was immortalized by Picasso's painting.
216
What was the result of France's war in Indochina at Dien Bien Phu?
France was forced to admit defeat in May 1954.
217
What did the American government do after France's defeat in Indochina?
It returned to the battlefield in Vietnam.
218
Fill in the blank: The assassination of the Archduke led to a chain reaction of declarations of war due to existing alliances, culminating in _______.
World War I
219
True or False: The Dreyfus Affair united all factions in France.
False
220
What event marked the total defeat of French forces in Vietnam?
The defeat at the North Vietnamese garrison of Dien Bien Phu in May 1954
## Footnote
This defeat forced the French government to acknowledge the end of their colonial rule in Vietnam.
221
What were the two native kingdoms in northern Vietnam?
* Tonkin
* Annan
## Footnote
These kingdoms, along with Cochin China in the south, made up the geographical and cultural divisions of Vietnam.
222
Who was the leader of the Viet Minh during the struggle for independence?
Ho Chi Minh
## Footnote
Ho Chi Minh declared himself head of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam after consolidating power.
223
What was the primary goal of the Allies after Japan's surrender in 1945 regarding Vietnam?
To restore European equilibrium by returning colonies to France
## Footnote
The Allies aimed to boost France's self-esteem and control in the region.
224
Who was General Vo Nguyen Giap?
A hero of the Vietnamese wars and leader of the Viet Minh
## Footnote
Giap played a crucial role in resisting French and Chinese occupying forces.
225
What significant change occurred in Vietnam's dynamics in 1949?
The Communist takeover of China
## Footnote
This event led to increased support for the Viet Minh from China and the Soviet Union.
226
Fill in the blank: The French set up a defensive position at _______ to draw fire from the Viet Minh.
Dien Bien Phu
227
What was the outcome of the siege at Dien Bien Phu?
The French surrendered on May 7, 1954
## Footnote
Despite suffering more casualties, the Viet Minh won the war, leading to the Geneva Conference.
228
What did the Geneva Conference result in for Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam?
Independence for all three countries
## Footnote
This event marked the end of French colonial rule in Indochina.
229
What lesson did Dien Bien Phu illustrate about military strategy?
The futility of relying on superior manpower and technology against a well-entrenched guerrilla force
## Footnote
It highlighted the effectiveness of guerrilla warfare in difficult terrain.
230
True or False: President Eisenhower immediately decided to get involved in the Vietnam conflict after Dien Bien Phu.
False
## Footnote
Eisenhower initially refused to engage without Congressional approval, recognizing the lack of decisive objectives.
231
What was the 'falling dominoes' theory associated with U.S. policy?
The idea that the spread of communism in one country would lead to its spread in neighboring countries
## Footnote
This theory influenced U.S. intervention in Vietnam and other regions.
232
What did the Geneva Conference promise regarding Vietnam's future?
Free elections in two years to decide on possible reunification
## Footnote
This promise was ultimately disregarded by U.S. leaders.
233
Who was President during the escalation of U.S. involvement in Vietnam following Eisenhower?
John F. Kennedy
## Footnote
Kennedy looked for ways to reaffirm U.S. prestige after setbacks like the Bay of Pigs.
234
What was the situation in Vietnam by the time Lyndon Johnson took office?
The U.S. was headed for a repeat of the mistakes made at Dien Bien Phu
## Footnote
This reflects the cyclical nature of U.S. involvement in Vietnam.
