Chapter 14 - Family Flashcards
(132 cards)
1
Q
Linked Lives
A
The concept that the development of the individual is intertwined with the development of other family members.
2
Q
family systems theory
A
The conceptualization of the family as a whole consisting of interrelated parts, each of which affects and is affected by every other part, and each of which contributes to the functioning of the whole.
like the human body, is truly a whole consisting of interrelated parts
3
Q
subsystems within the family system
A
the couple subsystem, the parent–child subsystem, and the sibling subsystem
4
Q
coparenting
A
ways in which two parents coordinate their parenting and function well (or poorly) as a team in raising their children
a fourth subsystem identified by family researchers
5
Q
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model
A
emphasizes nicely that the family is a system (a microsystem, if you recall) that is embedded in and interacts with larger social systems such as a neighborhood, a community, a subculture, and a broader culture or macrosystem
6
Q
nuclear family
A
A family unit consisting of husband–father, wife–mother, and at least one child.
7
Q
extended family household
A
A family unit composed of parents and children living with other kin such as grandparents, aunts and uncles, cousins, or a combination of these.
common in many cultures
8
Q
alloparenting
A
parenting by multiple caregivers
9
Q
family life cycle
A
The sequence of changes in family composition, roles, and relationships that occurs from the time people marry until they die.
10
Q
earliest theories of family development featured this concept
A
family life cycle
11
Q
Evelyn Duvall’s 8 stages of the family life cycle
A
Married couple without children
Childbearing family (oldest child from birth to 30 months)
Family with preschool children (oldest child from 30 months to 6 years)
Family with school-age children (oldest child up to 12 years)
Family with teenagers (oldest child from 13 to 20 years)
Family launching young adults (first child gone to last child gone)
Family without children (empty nest to retirement)
Aging family (retirement to death)
12
Q
changes in family life in the United States since the 1950s and 1960s:
About __% of adults age 25 and older are in the “never married” category, compared to __% in 1960, and more are likely to remain “never married” in middle age
A
20%
9%
13
Q
Over __% of adults can still be expected to marry at some time in their lives, but marriage is being _______________—a worldwide trend—and the percentage of adults ever marrying has begun to decline as well
A
80%
postponed
14
Q
In 1960, the average age at first marriage was __ for women and __ for men; in 2019, it was __ for women and nearly __ for men
A
20 for women and 23 for men; in 2019,
it was 28 for women and nearly 30 for men
15
Q
Especially among non-college-educated adults, __________________ has been increasing, either as an alternative to marriage or, more often, a step before marriage
A
cohabitation
16
Q
more and more females, especially ___________________, are not married when they give birth
A
less educated ones
17
Q
About __% of births in 1980 but a whopping __% of births by 2017 were to unmarried women
A
18%
40%
18
Q
In 1950, __% of married women with children younger than age 6 worked outside the home; the figure has climbed to about __%, a truly remarkable social change
A
12%
66%
19
Q
The divorce rate increased over the 20th century and has fallen some since but, still, over __% of newly married couples can expect to divorce
A
40%
20
Q
why are there more single-parent families now than years ago?
A
Because of more births to unmarried women and more divorce and separation
21
Q
In 2018, __% of children younger than age 18 lived with their mothers only, __% with their fathers only, and __% with grandparents or other nonparents; _________ lived with two parents
A
22%
4%
4%
two-thirds
22
Q
reconstituted families
A
also called blended families, that include at least a parent, a stepparent, and one child. Similarly, when cohabiting couples separate, they often go on to form new families
23
Q
Older ________ are more likely than older ________ to live alone rather than with a spouse (36% vs. 20%),
why?
A
women
men
mainly because more women are widowed
24
Q
why are there fewer caregivers for aging adults?
A
owing to smaller families and increased longevity, more and more aging adults need care from relatives but have fewer children to provide it
the term “elder orphans” describes this growing problem
25
some argue that society is evolving toward two tracks of family life, one for those with a college education and a good income, another for those with less education and income:
what are the different tracks?
College-educated adults are standing by the institution of marriage but have moved away from a working husband/homemaker mother model to a model in which both partners work and share household and childrearing tasks - enables them to invest a good deal of resources in their children’s success
less-educated, lower-income adults have experienced more of the changes in family life with negative implications; they now cohabit more and marry less, have higher rates of divorce and separation, and raise more children in single-parent families
26
mothers still spend more time __________________________ than fathers do. This gender difference in involvement in child care is common across cultures
directly caring for and interacting with children
27
Children fare better cognitively, socially, and emotionally if they have a _______________________ in their lives than if they do not
supportive father—or some other second parent figure, male or female
28
High-SES families are more likely than low-SES families to have ________ in the home
fathers
29
indirect effects
The instance in which the relationship between two individuals in a family is modified by the behavior or attitudes of a third family member.
30
how do fathers indirectly affect the mother-infant relationship?
mothers who have close, supportive relationships with their partners tend to interact more patiently and sensitively with their babies than do mothers who are experiencing marital problems or feel that they are raising their children largely without help
31
how do mothers indirectly affect the father-infant relationship?
fathers who have just had pleasant conversations with their wives are more supportive and engaged when they interact with their children than fathers who have just had arguments with their wives
when the mother of an infant is depressed, the father tends to step up and devote more time to his infant than he otherwise would
32
how do babies have an indirect effect on their parents?
A screaming baby can negatively affect a couple’s relationship by causing a stressed father to blow up at his wife
33
When parents __________ rather than ____________, their infants may show signs of insecure attachment or may become securely attached to one parent but be blocked from enjoying a close relationship with the other
compete
cooperate
34
As children reach age 2 or so, parents continue to be caregivers and playmates, but they also become...
socialization agents
35
two dimensions of parenting styles
acceptance–responsiveness
demandingness–control
36
Acceptance–responsiveness
A dimension of parenting capturing the extent to which parents are supportive, sensitive to their children’s needs, and willing to provide affection and praise when their children meet their expectations.
37
Demandingness–control
A dimension of parenting reflecting the extent to which parents as opposed to children exert control over decisions and set and enforce rules; also called permissiveness–restrictiveness.
38
By crossing the acceptance and demandingness dimensions, we have these four basic patterns of childrearing originally identified and defined by _________________.
Diana Baumrind
Authoritarian parenting
Authoritative parenting
Permissive parenting
Neglectful parenting
39
Authoritarian parenting
A restrictive style of parenting combining high demandingness–control and low acceptance–responsiveness in which adults impose many rules, expect strict obedience, and often rely on power tactics rather than explanations to elicit compliance.
40
Authoritative parenting
A flexible style of parenting combining high demandingness–control and high acceptance–responsiveness in which adults lay down clear rules but also take their children’s views into account and explain the rationale for their restrictions.
41
Permissive parenting
A lax style of parenting combining low demandingness–control and high acceptance–responsiveness in which adults love their children but make few demands on them and rarely attempt to control their behavior. (sometimes called indulgent parenting)
42
Neglectful parenting
A parenting style low in demandingness–control and low in acceptance–responsiveness; uninvolved parenting. (sometimes called disengaged or uninvolved parenting) - They may be hostile and rejecting or indifferent—or they may be so overwhelmed by their own problems that they cannot devote sufficient energy to expressing love and setting and enforcing rules
43
Children raised by which type of parents are the best adjusted, cheerful, socially responsible, self-reliant, achievement oriented, and cooperative with adults and peers?
authoritative parents
44
Children raised by which type of parents are often impulsive, self-centered, rebellious, aimless, and low in independence and achievement?
permissive parents
45
Children raised by which type of parents tend to be moody and unhappy, relatively aimless, and unpleasant to be around?
authoritarian parents
46
The worst developmental outcomes are associated with which style of parenting? What behavioral problems do they tend to exhibit?
neglectful parents
aggression and frequent temper tantrums and are at risk to become hostile and antisocial adolescents who abuse alcohol and drugs and get in trouble
47
what can influence the effectiveness of different parenting approaches?
the cultural or subcultural context in which they are used -- Much seems to hinge on how common a parenting style is in a culture or subculture and whether children view it as normal and acceptable
48
What is a Tiger Mother?
Described in a book by Amy Chua - This “Tiger Mother” described raising her daughters, Sophia and Lulu, in what struck most American parents as an almost abusively demanding, controlling, and unresponsive manner: Authoritarian parenting on steroids.
49
Compared with middle-class and upper-class parents, lower-class and working-class parents tend to place more emphasis on...
obedience and respect for authority - often more restrictive and authoritarian, reason with their children less frequently, and show less warmth and affection
50
family stress model
Model of the effects of economic hardship in families that centers on the negative effects of financial stresses on parent mental health, parenting, and, in turn, child development.
developed by Glen Elder, Rand Conger
financially stressed parents tend to be less warm and nurturant, more authoritarian, and less consistent
breakdown in parenting then contributes to negative child outcomes such as low self-esteem, poor school performance, poor peer relations, and adjustment problems such as aggression and depression
family stress model has good support and applies across ethnic groups and cultures
51
children most affected by poverty are disproportionately children from what kind of homes?
female-headed homes (where 41% are poor compared to 8% in married two-parent families)
and minority children (29% of black children and 25% of Hispanic children, compared to 11% of white, non-Hispanic children)
52
what can disrupt the link between poverty and reduced connectivity in key neural networks in the brain?
supportive parenting
53
what are the four models of influence in the family?
parent effects, child effects, interactional, and transactional models
54
parent effects model
A model of family influence in which parents are believed to influence their children rather than vice versa
assumes that influences run one way, from parent—particularly mother—to child
becomes a “blame the parents” model when children do not turn out well
55
child effects model
A model of family influence in which children are believed to influence their parents rather than vice versa.
56
interactional model
A model of family influence in which it is the combination of a particular kind of child with a particular kind of parent that determines developmental outcomes.
57
transactional model
A model of family influence in which parent and child are believed to influence each other reciprocally over time, and development is influenced by how their relationship evolves.
Child problems may develop when the relationship between parent and child somehow goes bad as the two interact.
58
Which family influence model has guided the study of human development through most of its history?
parent effects model
59
In the child effects model, what aspects of the child can influence the parenting he or she receives?
a child’s age and competence - infants in their first year of life require and elicit sensitive care, whereas toddlers who are asserting their wills and running all over the place force parents to set limits
genetic makeup and personality
The gene–environment correlations - in which children, because of their genetic makeup, evoke certain reactions from other people and actively create their own social environments
60
what concept illustrates the interactional model?
The concept of gene–environment interaction - aggressive behavior may develop if a child has a variant of the MAO-A gene associated with temper control problems and is raised by an abusive parent
the effect of a particular parenting approach depends on the child with whom it is used, and that the effect of a particular child characteristic depends on how a child with that characteristic is raised
61
what is the coercive cycle of family influence? Which model does it correspond with?
antisocial behavior can result when a child who behaves aggressively elicits negative, coercive parenting and when that parenting contributes further to the child’s aggression
transactional model
62
What portion of firstborns cope well with the arrival of a new sibling? What portion find the experience threatening? What portion are actively protesting and aggressive?
Most firstborns (60%) coped well, going against the old psychoanalytic view that “dethronement” is a traumatic experience for toddlers: They watched closely and sometimes approached but often just sat quietly
31% clearly found the experience threatening: They watched very intently and seemed unable to play by themselves constructively or to approach their parent for comfort
Only 3% were disruptive, actively protesting and being aggressive
63
sibling rivalry
A spirit of competition, jealousy, or resentment that may arise between two or more brothers or sisters.
is a normal part of sibling relationships
64
sibling rivalry may be rooted in what cause?
an evolutionary fact: Although siblings are genetically related, they compete for their parents’ attention and the resources that will ensure their survival and welfare
65
The number of skirmishes between very young siblings can be as high as __ per hour
56
66
Most parent–adolescent relationships are what?
close, and most retain whatever quality they had in childhood - It is rare for a parent–child relationship to suddenly turn bad at adolescence
67
Parent-child conflict usually increases temporarily around what age?
around the onset of puberty - bickering is mainly about minor matters such as disobedience, homework, household chores, and privileges
68
Autonomy
The capacity to make decisions independently, serve as one’s own source of emotional strength, and otherwise manage life tasks without being overdependent on other people; an important developmental task of adolescence.
69
What is the goal for parenting during adolescence?
blend of autonomy and attachment, or independence and interdependence - - the winning approach is usually authoritative parenting.
70
teens are likely to become psychologically distressed, rebel, socialize with the wrong crowds, and get into trouble when parents do what?
When parents are extremely strict and controlling and stifle autonomy, or when they are extremely lax and fail to guide and monitor their adolescents
71
In U.S. society today, what portion of adults choose to marry at some point in their lives?
between 80 and 90%
72
One year into marriage, the average spouse says, ‘I love you,’ hugs and kisses their partner, makes their partner laugh, and has sexual intercourse about how often as compared with when they were newly wed?
about half as often
73
Does the quality of a couple’s relationship early in their marriage tell us anything about what will become of the marriage?
compared with couples who were happily married after 13 years, couples who remained married but were unhappy had had relatively poor-quality relationships all along
Even as newlyweds these couples interacted more negatively with each other than couples who stayed married and remained happy in their marriages.
74
By age 40–44, ___% of women in the United States have given birth to a child and over ___% of men have fathered one
85%
80%
75
what is the parental imperative?
couples often experience a shift toward more traditional gender-role attitudes and divide their labors along more traditional lines when they become parents
76
even among highly educated and dual-career couples that shared tasks equally before the birth, new mothers take on more than __________ of added work a day, compared to ___________ more for new fathers
2 hours
40 mins
77
What are the implications of increased stress and of sharper gender-role differentiation in parenthood?
marital satisfaction declines for many couples in the first year after a baby is born and continues to decline thereafter
decline is often steeper for women than for men
Mothers’ self-esteem, although it may rise right after the birth, often falls thereafter
78
mothers of young adolescents seem to have a lower sense of ______________ than mothers of either younger or older children
well-being
79
allostatic load
a measure of the physiological wear and tear of stress on the body
80
Living with children—especially multiple children—was associated with higher ___________ and shorter __________________, suggesting that parenting ages parents and can negatively affect their physiology and health
allostatic load
telomere length
81
In 1960, only about 20% of Americans aged 18 to 34 lived with parents, but now over ___% do
Over ___% of Canadians and Europeans in this age range live with their parents
30%
40%
82
most adults become grandparents when they are what age?
middle-aged (not elderly)
83
What are the three types of grandparenting?
Remote
Companionate
Involved
84
What is remote grandparenting and what portion represents this style?
symbolic figures seen only occasionally by their grandchildren. Primarily because they were geographically distant, they tended to be emotionally distant as well (although video chat is now helping)
29%
85
What is companionate grandparenting and what portion represents this style?
saw their grandchildren frequently and enjoyed doing things with them. They only rarely played a parental role and liked it that way
the most common style of grandparenting (55% of the sample)
86
What is involved grandparenting and what portion represents this style?
took on a more parent-like role. Like companionate grandparents, they saw their grandchildren frequently and were playful with them, but unlike companionate grandparents, they often helped with child care, gave advice, and played other practical roles in their grandchildren’s lives
16%
87
Grandparents have been called “_________________________” because they must be ever ready to come to the rescue when there is a crisis in the family
the family national guard
88
who have been the most important helpers of parents throughout history and continue to be important today?
maternal grandmothers
89
Early cross-sectional studies comparing younger and older couples suggested ______________________
longitudinal research revealed that there was simply a ______________ in marital satisfaction over the years
a U-shaped curve (with marital satisfaction high early, declining in the childrearing years, and rebounding when the nest empties)
decline
90
knowing what stage of the family life cycle adults are in does not tell us much about how satisfied they are with their relationship - _______________ is far more important.
personality
Happily married people have more agreeable personalities than unhappily married people
91
living with a conscientious, responsible spouse is related to __________________________ for both men and women—apart from the effects of their own conscientiousness - an example of linked lives
occupational success
92
if a wife is depressed, her husband is more likely to experience...
increased symptoms of depression and decreased memory performance
93
age 65 or older, about __% of men, but only __% of women, are married and living with their spouse, mainly because more women become widowed
70%
45%
94
Aging __________ enjoy closer relations and more contact with their children, especially their daughters, than aging _________ do
mothers
fathers
95
estimates that the ratio of giving to receiving (of money, time, and other resources) is ________ in favor of the older generation up to age 70 or so, when it becomes more even or even reverses
2 to 1
96
middle-generation squeeze
The phenomenon in which middle-aged adults sometimes experience heavy responsibilities for both the younger and the older generations in the family.
97
Kinkeepers
An individual, typically a woman, who keeps family members in touch with each other and handles family problems when they arise.
98
caregiver burden
The psychological distress associated with providing care for someone with physical, cognitive, or both types of impairment.
99
What do we know about the 10% or more of adults who never marry?
often make up for their lack of spouse and children by forming close bonds with siblings, friends, or younger adults who become like sons or daughters to them
Adults who have never lived with a partner and are childless run the risk, though, of being lonelier than most adults in later life, especially in traditional countries that value marriage and family highly
100
profile of the couples at highest risk for divorce: young adults, in (what age group?), who have been married for an average of only about __ years and who often have ______________
20s and 30s
7 years
young children
101
Couples typically divorce because they feel their relationship lacks...
communication, compatibility, and emotional fulfillment
102
there has been an upturn in “gray divorce,” - what is it?
divorce involving adults age 50 and older, although divorce remains more likely early in a marriage than later - older couples divorce for the same reasons younger couples divorce
103
After a divorce there is a period of considerable disruption lasting for approx how long?
a year or two
104
stressed custodial single mothers often become less _____________ and less ________________ in their parenting
authoritative
consistent
they occasionally try to seize control of their children with a heavy-handed, authoritarian approach, but more often they fail to carry through in enforcing rules
105
Noncustodial fathers, meanwhile, are likely to be overly _______________
permissive
106
By the ___-year mark, most differences between children of divorce and children of intact families have disappeared
6
107
Reconstituted families - adjustment difficulties are likely to be worse if what happens?
if both parents bring children to the family than if only one parent does
108
Reconstituted families - ______ sometimes have more trouble adjusting than ______
girls
boys
They are often so closely allied with their mothers that they may resent either a stepfather competing for their mother’s attention or a stepmother attempting to play a substitute-mother role.
109
Forms of family violence
intimate partner violence (IPV)
child maltreatment
sibling violence
child-to-parent violence
parental alienation
elder abuse
110
intimate partner violence (IPV):
in the United States - over one in _____ women and one in ______ men are victimized at some time in their life
___% of couples experience physical violence in a year, ranging from pushing to use of weapons
three
four
15%
111
Much child maltreatment goes unreported, but official statistics for the United States suggest that ___ of every 1,000 children under age 18 is the victim of substantiated maltreatment in a year.
9
112
What is the most common type of child maltreatment?
the most common type of maltreatment is neglect, followed by physical abuse
113
sibling violence especially takes place between...
brothers
114
Some of the perpetrators of child-to-parent violence have traits associated with what?
callous-unemotional traits associated with conduct disorder and aggression
115
parental alienation
Situation in which a child becomes reluctant or refuses to have a relationship with one parent because of the alienating efforts of the other parent.
attempts to undermine the other parent’s relationship with a child might include claiming that the other parent forgot the child’s birthday, blaming that parent for divorce and other things that have gone wrong in the child’s life, and blocking communications between the child and the other parent
116
who is most likely to commit elder abuse?
most often by stressed adult children or spouses serving as their caregivers
117
_____________ abuse and ___________ abuse are the most common forms of elder abuse
___% of older adults are abused in a given year in the United States
psychological and financial
10%
118
Although most maltreated children do not grow up to abuse their own children, a higher-than-expected percentage, about ___%, do
30
119
intergenerational transmission of parenting
The passing down from generation to generation of parenting styles, abusive or otherwise.
120
there is evidence that abusive parents have one or more of the following histories/traits:
often were maltreated themselves as children, have been victims of intimate partner violence, are often of low SES, and have distinctive personality profiles
121
an abusive parent is most often...
a young mother who has multiple children, lives in poverty, is unemployed, and has little help or support
122
how often do child abusers have severe psychological disorders?
rarely
123
the most likely victims of child maltreatment are...
infants
124
rate of maltreatment (25 children per 1,000 for infants) ___________ as the age of a child increases—except for ________ abuse, which __________ with age
decreases
sexual
increases
125
some maltreated children—between ____and ____%—are resilient and get back on an adaptive developmental path, whether owing to a protective genetic makeup and personal strengths or support from at least one nurturing adult
10 and 25%
126
When an infant is part of a family, the mother spends much of the time focused on care. The father focuses his time on...
recreation
127
Child maltreatment and abuse can largely be attributed to what types of forces?
Cyclical
128
What visually depicts the relationship of the family to environmental systems in Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model?
Concentric circles
129
What is the likely rationale for higher rates of marital dissatisfaction and divorce among couples who cohabitate before marrying?
Ambivalence
130
Joanne got married for the first time in 1960. Phoebe got married for the first time just a month ago. At the time of their wedding, how much older was Phoebe than Joanne?
. 10 years
131
Based on early research, how did the empty nest impact the graphical curve that measured marital satisfaction for couples?
It is the bottom of a U-shape, marking the end of low satisfaction.
131
The changing dynamics between parents and their adolescents should have the goal of...
balance.
