Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders midterm 3 Flashcards

Question

what is stigma?

Answer 1

refers to disapproval, poor treatment, discrimination, or isolation due to being different (Link & Phelan, 2001).

Answer 2

dangerous conscious choice

Answer 3

witchcraft or demonic possession. Relating these conditions to morality and spirituality lent a considerable sense of shame to these disorders, and individuals with mental illness were often punished as criminals.

Answer 4

surgical procedure in which a hole was drilled into the human skull to release evil spirits, was practiced for thousands of years

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A philosophical argument that seeks to improve human society by encouraging reproduction by people with desirable qualities(positive eugenics) and discouraging reproduction by people with undesirable qualities (negative eugenics)

Answer 6

proposed sterilization of individuals considered to be mentally inferior.

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more humane treatment of the insane, a now antiquated term for mental illness. As a result of her lobbying, states began to fund specialized institutions to house and treat individuals with psychological disorders.

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asylum---thus the term insane asylum By 1890, every state had built one or more of these mental hospitals, and these institutions quickly reached and exceeded their capacity soon after opening (U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2013). Individuals with psychological disorders tended to receive inhumane treatment in these cramped settings.

Answer 9

The goals of deinstitutionalization were to reduce admissions to psychiatric hospitals, shorten lengths of stay, and improve the treatment that admitted individuals received.

Answer 10

NAMI (National Alliance on Mental Illness) MHA (Mental Health America)

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d negative eugenics Explanation The aim of eugenics is to improve society. Here, people with psychological disorders were/are stigmatized, and having greater numbers of people with psychological disorders was not encouraged. Sterilizing people with psychological disorders is a form of negative eugenics which selects against certain traits, like having a psychological disorder.

Answer 12

c She advocated for humane treatment of individuals with psychological disorders. Explanation While people with psychological disorders were stigmatized, Dix lobbied to get states to fund institutions for people with psychological disorders to live and receive treatment. Electric shock therapy was not specifically one of the treatments she lobbied for.

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person-first language This is a deliberate way of communicating and may initially appear to be unnatural or cumbersome. For example, referring to an individual as a person with schizophrenia instead of a schizophrenic implies that the individual is, in fact, a person and possesses attributes in addition to a condition.

Answer 14

An example of an identity-first language choice is autistic person rather than person with autism (Vivanti, 2020). Proponents of identity-first language argue that a disorder is an important part of an individual’s makeup, and integrating the disorder with identity can be affirming and validating. While there are strong arguments on both sides, the important thing seems to be respect of the individual.

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c person with depression; depressed person Explanation The person or name of the person is listed before the diagnosis with person-first language in "person with depression." The diagnosis is depression, and it is listed second as an identifier. Depression is highlighted and appears first in the second part, which is identity-first language rather than the person or person's name.

Answer 16

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders s a classification system used by mental health professionals in the United States and many other countries. Published by the American Psychiatric Association, the DSM helps clinicians, researchers, health insurance agencies, pharmaceutical companies, and forensic experts make consistent and objective decisions about defining, diagnosing, and treating abnormal behaviors across a variety of clinical settings

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psychiatrist psychologist social worker

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The first edition of the manual, published in 1952, was 132 pages long and included 128 diagnoses, many of which reflected the prevailing psychodynamic (i.e., Freudian) view of the time that mental disorders represented disturbances of the personality (Grob, 1991). Homosexuality was included in this volume as a sociopathic personality disturbance

Answer 19

In 1968, the second edition of the DSM was published. In many ways, this version was similar to its predecessor, especially in terms of the psychodynamic perspective. This 119-page volume included 193 diagnoses and maintained a strong focus on personality disturbances. Practitioners complained that DSM-II was an unreliable diagnostic tool; a patient assessed by multiple providers could receive multiple diagnoses because of the lack of detailed descriptions of symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, n.d.). In response to protests by gay rights activists, the sixth printing of DSM-II in 1974 removed homosexuality as a category of mental disorder. However, it was replaced with a category of sexual orientation disturbance, which classified distress brought on by homosexual inclinations as a symptom of a mental disorder (Drescher, 2015).

Answer 20

Published in 1980, DSM-III responded to previous critiques by including precise definitions and explicit diagnostic criteria for mental disorders (Blashfield et al., 2014). Additionally, DSM-III introduced a multiaxial diagnostic assessment system, which provided a more comprehensive view of mental disorders. As a result of these changes, this volume ballooned to 494 pages and included 228 distinct diagnoses. The sexual orientation disturbance category was replaced with ego-dystonic homosexuality, suggesting that individuals identifying as homosexual may experience anxiety and internal conflict regarding their sexual orientation (Spitzer, 1981). However, one’s sexual orientation was no longer considered a mental disorder.

Answer 21

In response to research sparked by the release of DSM-III, the manual was updated in 1987 with revisions and corrections. This edition also included more significant changes, such as the inclusion of new diagnostic categories like sleep disorders. DSM-III-R had a total of 253 diagnoses and the page count was now up to 567. After a thorough evaluation of the disorder, ego-dystonic homosexuality was removed from DSM-III-R. Homosexuality was now classified as a sexual disorder not otherwise specified, and one of the indicators was “persistent and marked distress about one’s sexual orientation”

Answer 22

The fourth edition of the DSM was published in 1994 and was the result of an extensive evaluation of research on mental disorders in the United States (Blashfield et al., 2014). Work groups composed of psychiatrists and psychologists reviewed the literature and analyzed data to determine which diagnostic categories needed changing. As a result, DSM-IV grew to 383 diagnoses across 886 pages. Additionally, the manual included an appendix of 17 diagnostic categories that required further study. Finally, this edition introduced a clinical significance criterion, which required that symptoms cause "clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning" (Spitzer & Wakefied, 1999).

Answer 23

A text revision of the DSM-IV was published in 2000. The intention of this edition was to provide more comprehensive descriptions of each diagnostic category. No categories were added, though the length increased to 943 pages (Blashfield, 2014).

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The latest version of the DSM is a 947-page volume that includes 541 diagnoses. We have come a long way from the two categories observed in 1840. It is important to note, however, that in terms of distinct diagnostic categories, that number is closer to 237 (Blashfield, 2014). DSM-5 was the first major overhaul of the manual in 20 years, and similar to DSM-IV, it relied on work groups of mental health professionals to take charge of classifying mental disorders (Sanders, 2011). However, these work groups had a new task of incorporating significant advances in genetics, neuroimaging, molecular biology, cognitive neuroscience, and psychometrics into the traditional classification system. Another important difference in the development process was the launch of the Prelude Project, which posted drafts of DSM-5 online and invited the public to provide feedback.

Answer 25

precise definitions and explicit diagnostic criteria for mental disorders (Blashfield et al., 2014). Additionally, DSM-III introduced a multiaxial diagnostic assessment system, which provided a more comprehensive view of mental disorders: Axis I: Major mental disorders (e.g., mood disorders, anxiety disorders) Axis II: Underlying personality or intellectual disorders that are resistant to change (e.g., antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, intellectual disability) Axis III: Medical conditions that may influence the mental disorder (e.g., obesity, type 2 diabetes, multiple sclerosis) Axis IV: Psychosocial stressors that may influence the mental disorder (e.g., homelessness, interpersonal violence) Axis V: Global assessment of functioning (scored from 1–100)

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ego-dystonic homosexuality, suggesting that individuals identifying as homosexual may experience anxiety and internal conflict regarding their sexual orientation (Spitzer, 1981). However, one’s sexual orientation was no longer considered a mental disorder.

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an enduring pattern of romatinc or sexual attraction to others that often begins in early adolescence. Common sexual orientations include gay, lesbian, straight, bisexual, and asexual

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1952 Explanation The World Health Organization published their version of mental disorders in 1946, and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders was published by the American Psychiatric Association six years later in 1952.

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d American Psychiatric Association Explanation Psychiatrists are mental health professionals who use the medical model to help people with psychological disorders, and it's the American Psychiatric Association that publishes the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

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c global assessment of functioning Explanation Axis I refers to the psychological disorder, Axis II refers to personality or intellectual disorders that are more persistent, Axis III refers to underlying medical conditions, Axis IV refers to stressors, and Axis V refers to global functioning estimates.

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Major mental disorders (e.g., mood disorders, anxiety disorders, etc.)

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personality disorders and mental retardation

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general medical conditions

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psychological and environmental problems

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global assessment of functioning

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One major change is the organization of the manual, which reflects the lifespan. DSM-5 begins with disorders that are typically diagnosed in childhood, proceeds to disorders typically diagnosed in adolescence and young adulthood, and ends with those more typically diagnosed in older adulthood. There are also significant changes to diagnostic categories, including more streamlined categories of autism and schizophrenia spectrum disorders (McCarron, 2013). This version also dropped the multiaxial format initially introduced in DSM-III. Now, instead of five domains of a mental disorder, DSM-5 requires documentation of one domain “with separate notations for important psychosocial and contextual factors (formerly Axis IV) and disability (formerly Axis V).” arabic rather than roman numerals, incremental uptdates marked by decimals(DSM-5.1), new editions marked by whole numbers(DSM-6)

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a Revision of the multiaxial diagnostic assessment system Explanation "Revised" implies that the multiaxial diagnostic assessment system is still in place, but in fact, it was removed and replaced by focusing on one domain and notes other factors and disabilities.

Answer 38

The primary purpose of DSM-5 is to help trained mental health professionals diagnose mental disorders, which is the first step in the development of comprehensive and effective treatment plans for these disorders. While DSM-5 may appear to be a series of checklists for determining whether or not an individual meets the criteria for a diagnosis, clinicians are cautioned to carefully develop a case formulation for each individual (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).

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An explanation of an individual's mental disorder that is informed by factors such as developmental history, relationship status, physical health, and cultural background. This information is typically gathered in a clinical interview, which provides a contextual understanding of a patient. Of critical importance is the determination of clinical significance. All mental disorders exist on a continuum of normal to abnormal, and a disorder should only be diagnosed if the symptoms are causing significant distress or impairment in one or more aspects of an individual’s life.

Answer 40

the logistics of mental illness. Each mental disorder in the manual is accompanied by a diagnostic and statistical code. These strings of numbers and letters are used for data collection and billing purposes. The codes provide information about a diagnosis as well as specifiers, such as the severity of the disorder or whether the symptoms have occurred one time or many times.

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Explanation The DSM helps clinicians diagnose psychological disorders, includes important characteristics of each psychological disorder, and provides diagnostic and statistical codes that clinics and hospitals can use to bill insurance companies for reimbursement of services.

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500 disorders The organization is intended to follow a developmental lifespan sequence, with disorders more common to childhood/adolescence coming first and those more common to adulthood coming after.

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which affect the brain and neurological systems, are typically first seen during infancy and early childhood (Thapar et al., 2017). This group of disorders is marked by impairments and deficits in multiple aspects of a child’s life, including academic ability, social functioning, and behavioral problems. These children are often delayed in reaching milestones for speech and language, motor skills, and learning. They may also exhibit problems with retention of information. Neurodevelopmental disorders tend to co-occur, meaning it is likely that a child meets diagnostic criteria for more than one of these conditions at a time (Dajan et al., 2016).

Answer 44

change or evolve. In fact, the symptoms may fade or seem to disappear. However, many of these disorders persist, in some form, across the lifespan. A neurodevelopmental disorder may be diagnosed based on symptoms that were observed in the past, but the disorder must still cause significant impairment at the time of diagnosis.

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a Infancy Explanation Because these disorders affect the brain and the rest of the central and peripheral nervous systems, their cognitive and social effects are seen early in infancy.

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including Asperger’s syndrome, autism, and pervasive developmental disorder. This group of neurodevelopmental disorders is characterized by significant social, emotional, behavioral, and communication impairments Other key features of ASD may include repetitive movements (rocking the body back and forth), insistence on a routine (eating the same food every day, distress when the schedule is not followed), intense preoccupation with a particular interest (fixation on a specific topic, like dinosaurs), and hyper- or hypo-reactivity to sensory input (adverse responses to specific sounds or smells, excessive touching of objects). Symptoms are typically noticed during the second year of life in the form of delayed language or social development. There are no specific causes of ASD, though twin studies show a strong genetic link

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there is a wide range of impairment possible within this diagnosis. One child receiving the diagnosis may exhibit mild symptoms while another may experience severe symptoms.

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Lose touch with reality •Difficulty thinking clearly, making good judgments, and communicating effectively Another term for disorders in this category is serious mental illness (SMI), which reflects their chronic and debilitating nature (Insel, 2008).

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These key features can be grouped as positive symptoms and negative symptoms (National Institute of Mental Health, 2015). Think about positive and negative here in a mathematical sense: addition and subtraction, not good and bad.

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behaviors that were not present before the onset of the disorder. These symptoms start to appear during the course of the psychotic disorder and are not typically seen in healthy individuals. Delusions •Hallucinations •Thought and speech disorder •Catatonic behaviour--abnormal motor behaviors * disorganized thinking

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Diminished emotional expression(flat affect) ``` Sparse speech and language •Social withdrawal •Avolition •Algolia •Anhedonia ```

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are strong beliefs that are not founded in reality. These beliefs do not waver, even when confronted with compelling evidence to the contrary. A common example is persecutory delusion, in which an individual may believe they are being followed or harassed by the government.

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are sensory experiences that do not have a source. For example, an individual may hear voices when no one is speaking. While auditory hallucinations are most common, hallucinations can also be visual, olfactory, gustatory, or tactile (i.e., seen, smelled, tasted, or felt).

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can typically be discerned from a person's speech and may entail switching from one topic to another in a nonsensical way or speaking in a jumbled, incoherent fashion

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can range from excessive and agitated movements to complete stillness and rigidity of the body.

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in healthy individuals that an individual experiencing psychosis does not do. These behaviors start to disappear during the course of a schizophrenia spectrum or other psychotic disorder.

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reduced expression of emotions through facial expressions, tone of voice, or body language. For example, an individual will maintain a neutral face in response to hearing a funny joke.

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a decreased motivation to start or follow-through on activities such as school, work, or self-care

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a reduction in speech output. In conversation, an individual will reply sparsely, if at all.

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emotional, behavioral, perceptual, and cognitive dysfunction. It affects 0.3–0.7% of the population, so it is a fairly rare disorder. While there is a genetic link (Sullivan, 2005), most individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia have no family history of psychosis. Recent research reveals that there are many environmental contributors to schizophrenia, including complications during pregnancy and birth, adverse childhood experiences, and social isolation (Stilo & Murray, 2019). Schizophrenia is diagnosed more among racial/ethnic minority groups and those growing up or living in urban environments, and the incidence of the disorder is slightly higher among men (Tandon et al., 2008). The psychotic features of schizophrenia tend to appear in young adulthood, and the earlier the age of onset, the worse the prognosis tends to be. Onset prior to adolescence is rare, but not unheard of.

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many different ways the disorder presents. For example, in a group of three people diagnosed with schizophrenia, there may be no overlap in the primary symptoms they exhibit. Nonetheless, most individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia have significant difficulty functioning in their daily activities.

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Cognitive symptoms in schizophrenia can be subtle and are often undetectable without neuropsychological testing. These symptoms affect memory and thought processes.Executive functioning describes the mental skills we use to make decisions based on the information we are presented with. For example, sustained attention helps us to focus and concentrate on the task of driving and our working memory helps us to remember that we should apply our brakes when we see a red traffic light. In schizophrenia, these skills may be impaired, which can lead to confusion and poor decision making.

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b delusion c positive symptom Explanation Positive symptoms occur after the onset of the psychological disorder and include delusions. Samson believed he was the President when he was, in fact, not; his belief was not based in reality.

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two opposite extremes, such as freezing and scorching or greedy and generous.

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manic-depressive disorder, reflects the characteristic highs and lows of conditions in the bipolar and related disorder chapter of DSM-5. However, the true defining feature of bipolar and related disorders is the experience of a manic episode. Table 14.4 lists the disorders included in this category.

Answer 66

a distinct period of increased energy and activity and may include psychotic symptoms. During this time, an individual may need less sleep, talk excessively, have a hard time focusing, and engage in impulsive behaviors. An individual may demonstrate impaired judgment by engaging in risky or dangerous activities, such as gambling, extravagant shopping sprees, or sexual escapades. Some individuals report feeling extremely productive during a manic episode, as another symptom is increased goal-directed activity. For example, a college student may complete all of their homework for the semester in a few days. However, the risk for impulsive behavior is intensified during a manic episode (Swann et al., 2001).

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a depressive episode, marked by sad mood and loss of interest or pleasure. However, the thoughts and behaviors associated with a manic episode are so extreme that even a return to baseline functioning may be considered a depressed state. The recognition of consequences incurred during a manic episode may also contribute to depressed mood. The bipolar and related disorders are marked by fluctuations between varying degrees of mania and depression.

Answer 68

is a less intense experience of mania that features the same increased energy and activity levels without the same impairment in functioning. A hypomanic episode also cannot feature psychotic symptoms. Bipolar II disorder is distinguished from the other diagnoses in this section of DSM-5 by the requirement that an individual experience both hypomanic and major depressive episodes. Because of the lessened impairment associated with hypomania, bipolar II disorder was once considered to be a milder form of bipolar disorder. However, the instability of mood, as well as the amount of time spent in a depressed state, have led researchers and clinicians to recognize bipolar II disorder as a seriously debilitating condition (Malhi et al., 2016).

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Mania: Period of excessive energy that interferes with functioning at a more significant level Hypomania:Period of excessive energy that interferes with functioning Explanation Mania involves more energy than usual and dysfunction. Hypomania involves this same increase in energy with less dysfunction than mania.

Answer 70

d Bipolar disorder is a newer term replacing the label manic-depressive disorder Explanation People used to call bipolar disorder manic-depressive disorder to emphasize the periods of excessive energy and lack of energy. The emphasis on these two different periods of energy is still apparent in bipolar disorder; "bi" means two and "polar" emphasizes the opposite nature of the energy levels or moods.

Answer 71

Feelings of sadness, emptiness, hopelessness, and irritability These feelings are often accompanied by physical symptoms and negative thoughts that significantly impair an individual’s functioning. When depressed, an individual may not have the desire to spend time with friends and family or the energy to go to school or work. the symptoms are long-lasting and affect many aspects of an individual’s life, as well as the lives of their friends and family

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depressive disorders (as well as many other psychological conditions). Suicidal behaviors can include thoughts, plans, and attempts to end one’s life.

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a desire to end intense emotional suffering, feeling overwhelmed with the stressors of life, or a wish to not be a burden to others (Klonsky et al., 2016). Suicidal behaviors should always be taken seriously. Although it is commonly stated that the biggest risk factor for a suicide attempt is previous attempts, most completed suicides are not preceded by a previous attempt. This means that the majority of people who try to kill themselves do so. If you or someone you know expresses thoughts or plans for suicide, please seek the help of mental health professional.

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The National Suicide Prevention Lifeline (1-800-273-8255) is a wonderful resource that provides 24/7 free and confidential support.

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more than 7% more than 20%

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Women are two to three times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression, which may be explained by hormonal changes during puberty, menstruation, pregnancy, miscarriage, and menopause, which have pronounced effects on mood

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However, some believe that societal pressures make men less likely to report their symptoms of depression, thereby falsely inflating the differential rates of diagnosis. Another possibility is that men are more likely to self-medicate with drugs or alcohol (Kessler et al., 1994).

Answer 78

sad mood or loss of interest or pleasure in activities that were once enjoyable. Other symptoms include significant increases or decreases in weight (without trying), appetite, or sleep patterns. For example, an individual diagnosed with major depressive disorder may exhibit diminished appetite, weight loss, or excessive sleepiness throughout the day. Physical symptoms, such as headaches, digestive problems, agitation, and lethargy, are also common among individuals diagnosed with major depressive disorder. An individual may also experience feelings of worthlessness, difficulty concentrating, and recurrent thoughts of death or suicide. This disorder may look different in children, who tend to exhibit an irritable rather than depressed mood.

Answer 79

b Women may experience hormonal changes that affect mood. Explanation Hormonal changes have been found to affect mood, and these hormonal changes occur throughout a woman's life.

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is excessive fear and anxiety

Answer 81

Fear is a response to current threats, while anxiety is worry about future threats It is important to differentiate these two states because they elicit different responses in our minds and bodies. Fear is associated with thoughts of immediate danger and physical symptoms that facilitate escape behaviors, such as increased heart rate, shallow breathing, and sweating. Anxiety, on the other hand, is related to thoughts of future danger, cautious or avoidant behaviors, and muscle tension.

Answer 82

an individual’s ability to function. For example, excessive anxiety could prevent an individual from sleeping due to worry about being on time. More often, anxiety disorders are disabling, preventing people from doing what they need to do. For instance, an individual worried about driving safely may never pull their car out of the driveway. Other manifestations of anxiety include hesitation to interact with others due to fear of their judgments or excessive fear of specific places, situations, or objects.

Answer 83

is an anxiety disorder in which an individual fears or avoids certain places or situations (Craske & Barlow, 2014). The word is derived from Greek and translates to “fear of the marketplace.”

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It occurs in about 1.7% of the population, and women are twice as likely as men to experience agoraphobia

Answer 85

using public transportation, being in open spaces, being in enclosed places, standing in line or being in a crowd, or being outside of the home alone. In these situations, the individual may report feeling trapped, helpless, or embarrassed, which amplifies their anxiety. For some, this anxiety leads to the experience of panic symptoms, such as shakiness, chest pain, nausea, dizziness, and shortness of breath, as well as fear of “going crazy” or dying

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unable to leave their home

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agoraphobia

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DSM-5 section on anxiety disorders. This purposeful placement reflects the similarities of these diagnostic categories. While there is a strong anxious component to obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, the conditions described in this section share characteristics that differentiate them from anxiety disorders.

Answer 89

preoccupations, rituals, and repetitive behaviors

Answer 90

Obsessions refer to recurrent unwanted, and intrusive thoughts, fears, urges, or images, while compulsions are behaviors that an individual feels driven to perform in response to an obsession. Often, compulsive rituals are performed to decrease or stop obsessive thoughts or urges. However, this relief typically lasts for a short time, and the individual is driven to perform the ritual again when the obsessive urges return.

Answer 91

In fact, the condition is marked by a persistent difficulty parting with possessions, even when they have little to no financial or practical value. Individuals diagnosed with hoarding disorder often report a sentimental attachment to their possessions and experience distress when faced with getting rid of things. As a result of not throwing away, giving away, selling, or recycling things, excessive accumulation of items can occur.

Answer 92

the quantity of a hoard soon takes over spaces in the home or workplace that render these areas unusable. For example, an individual may accumulate so much clutter in their kitchen that they are not able to access appliances or sit at the table. Another concern is that hoarding behavior can cause sanitation, fall, and fire hazards. Unlike other obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, an individual who hoards is not necessarily distressed by their behavior. However, their behavior can be distressing to other people, like family members or landlords. The most commonly hoarded items include books, newspapers, old clothes, mail, and paperwork.

Answer 93

a obsessions Explanation Constantly thinking about clowns is an obsession. If Dabnus had to check the window to be sure that clowns weren't there, that would be a compulsion.

Answer 94

Trauma is an emotional response to a shocking, terrifying, dangerous, or life-threatening event. Some examples of trauma include a car accident, physical or sexual assault, a natural disaster, or the sudden loss of a loved one. Trauma may also stem from a series of repeated negative experiences, such as growing up in a violent home (Van der Kolk,

Answer 95

is a reaction to demands in life, such as school work, impending deadlines, and major life changes. Experiencing a traumatic event can also be stressful. As the name of the category implies, trauma- and stressor-related disorders are caused by exposure to trauma and stress.

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fear, shock, denial, social withdrawal, anger, aggression, dissociation, or a combination of these symptoms. While it is normal to react in any of these ways, trauma- and stressor-related disorders are diagnosed when an individual has significant difficulty recovering from their distress.

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directly and indirectly. For example, witnessing or even hearing about a horrific accident can produce similar reactions to being involved in an accident. As technology allows us to bear witness to traumatic events around our world through electronic media, it will be important for researchers to learn more about the effects of vicarious trauma and stress

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experienced by watching, listening to, or reading about someone else doing something

Answer 99

psychological trauma (Anderson & Stevenson, 2019). The effects of vicarious race-based traumatic stress (Carter, 2007) truly came to light during the Spring and Summer of 2020 when the killings of Amaud Arbery, Breonna Taylor, George Floyd, and Sean Monterossa sparked a series of uprisings decrying and denouncing racial injustice. Subsequent conversations have highlighted the role of systemic racism in the mental health of people of color

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be traumatizing to them.

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of an individual experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. While not everyone who experiences trauma develops PTSD, the symptoms of PTSD usually set in within three months of exposure to a traumatic event. The desire to avoid reliving the trauma often makes it difficult for individuals with PTSD to express their thoughts and feelings.

Answer 102

At any given time, 3.5% of the population experience symptoms of PTSD, and it is projected that almost 9% of individuals will experience PTSD in their lifetime. Certain jobs, such as police officers, firefighters, and emergency medical personnel, increase the risk of exposure to trauma. Similarly, PTSD is more common among survivors of sexual assault and veterans of military combat. This short documentary sheds light on how combat affects many service men and women.

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re-experiencing symptoms avoidance symptoms cognitive and mood symptoms arousal and reactivity symptoms

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Flashbacks (reliving the trauma over and over), nightmares, or involuntary disturbing thoughts about the traumatic event.

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Staying away from people, places, situations, or objects that serve as reminders of the traumatic event.

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Inability to remember important features of the traumatic event; negative thoughts about oneself, others, or the world; persistent fear, horror, anger, guilt, or shame; inability to feel happy, satisfied, or loved.

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Constantly feeling tense or edgy; being easily startled; irritable behavior and angry outbursts; difficulty sleeping.

Answer 108

a anxiety Explanation Post-traumatic stress disorder involves anxiety in the form of involuntary thoughts about a past traumatic event and was classified as an anxiety disorder in the DSM-IV-TR.

Answer 109

disruption in an individual’s memory, identity, emotion, perception, and behavior. Dissociation can also affect physical sensations and motor control. Everyone has experienced some form of dissociation, whether it be spacing out while driving down the highway or getting so wrapped up in reading a book that you lose track of time. Even daydreaming is a form of dissociation. As with other psychological disorders, the experience of distress and impairment is what separates “getting lost in the moment” from a dissociative disorder.

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Positive dissociative symptoms include feelings of disconnection from one’s body

Answer 111

feelings that one’s surroundings are not real

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depersonalization derealization frgamentation of idnetity An individual may feel as if they are outside their body or that they are separated from the rest of the world by a fog. Others experiencing positive dissociative symptoms may describe reality as having an unfamiliar, dreamlike quality.

Answer 113

as loss of memory or mental function. These symptoms can be experienced as inability to recall personal information, important life events, or significant people in one’s life. An individual may also be unable to remember where they were or what they did for periods of time. These disorders are largely marked by unawareness of this lost time or information. It is not until they are confronted with evidence of gaps in information or time that they recognize their amnesia.

Answer 114

traumatic experiences, such as an accident, natural disaster, or abuse (Ban der Kolk & Fisler, 1995). It is thought that dissociation can help an individual tolerate what may otherwise be overwhelming. In such stressful situations, an individual may dissociate to mentally escape fear, pain, or horror. This may make it difficult to later recall details of the event

Answer 115

a Positive Explanation Depersonalization, derealization, and fragmentation of identity are positive dissociation symptoms. Persons may feel as though they are outside their body with these positive symptoms that occur after the onset of the disorder.

Answer 116

More commonly known as multiple personality disorder, dissociative identity disorder is characterized by the presence of two or more distinct identities and extensive memory loss. Some individuals describe this as an experience of being possessed (Parry et al., 2018).

Answer 117

multiple separate personalities. Rather, the condition reflects a fragmentation or splitting of identity that results in alternate personality states that may have distinct names, ages, genders, attitudes, outlooks, and personal preferences. Individuals may report that, depending on the predominant identity state, their vocabulary changes, they experience different intensities of emotions, or their body feels different in shape or size. When alternate personality states emerge, the individuals often experience lapses in memory and suddenly find themselves in places or situations with no idea how they came to be there.

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less than 1% with trauma experienced in childhood

Answer 119

refers to something that is specifically related to the body and not the mind. The DSM-5 category of somatic symptom and related disorders is characterized by an intense focus on symptoms of physical illness or pain. Specifically, an individual’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviors related to somatic symptoms cause significant distress and impairment. Of course, being sick or in pain can lead to distress, but a somatic symptom disorder may be diagnosed when the level of impairment the individual reports is over and beyond what would be expected in the course of illness.

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do not have a medical explanation. Somatic symptoms and related disorders are typically uncovered in a medical setting, as individuals tend to seek out medical care when they experience illness or injury. Diagnoses in this category tend to be considered when medical workups and treatments do not eventually produce symptom relief

Answer 121

individuals knowingly and deliberately cause themselves to be physically ill or injured. An individual may purposely expose themselves to illness or injury, exaggerate their symptoms to appear sicker than they actually are, or even tamper with medical tests or results

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oneself or imposed on another In the latter, the individual presents another individual to others as sick, impaired, or injured. For example, a mother may insist that her child has a rare medical condition and go to great lengths (e.g., giving the child substances that will induce abnormal lab results) to convince medical providers to diagnose and treat the condition. Individuals diagnosed with factitious disorder do not tend to fake medical problems for financial gain. While they are aware of their deceit, they are often unable to pinpoint the reasons why

Answer 123

a Factitious disorder imposed on self Explanation Nandi made herself sick; she did not make someone else sick. Factitious means artificially created, so Nandi artificially made herself sick when she's otherwise physically healthy. Factitious disorder used to be known as Munchausen syndrome.

Answer 124

Feeding disorders are typically seen during early childhood, whereas eating disorders tend to occur during adolescence and adulthood. Both feeding and eating disorders are characterized by problems with consuming food and absorbing nutrients, which can lead to physical and emotional health problems. In fact, it is often difficult to distinguish between feeding and eating disorders.

Answer 125

Feeding disorders tend to be the result of food preferences and perceived intolerances, while eating disorders are related to an emotional response to food. Diagnostic criteria for avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) and anorexia nervosa are similar in that restriction of food intake and low body weight are key features of both disorders.

Answer 126

However, the distinguishing factors are that anorexia nervosa requires an intense fear of weight gain or becoming fat as well as extreme discomfort in the individual’s perception of his or her own body weight and shape.

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is often defined by selective or picky eating

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A behavior in which individuals eat only a certain type of food or refuse to eat foods based on color, smell or texture

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binge eating disorder--los control of food intake and can eat large amount of food even when not hungry While the prevalence rates are higher among women, close to 2% of men also engage in these behaviors.

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lose weight and is characterized by eating an abnormally large amount of food in a short period of time (Grucza et al., 2007). Many people may binge at Thanksgiving or when eating at a buffet, but binge eating disorder is different. Individuals report loss of control, a sense that they cannot stop eating, even when they want to.

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a person must engage in frequent binge eating, at least once a week over a period of three months. Unlike the bingeing behaviors that occur in bulimia nervosa, a person with BED will not engage in compensatory behaviors such as purging, exercising, or taking a laxative. However, a key feature of the disorder is a feeling of distress, disgust, depression, or guilt following a binge eating episode

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d “I get a feeling that I just can’t stop eating.” Explanation Martina's inability to stop herself from eating could cause distress and potentially put herself in danger. Feeling compelled to eat is also deviant behavior. Martina's other statements are normal or typical behavior.

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a lack of bladder or bowel control that is not consistent with the individual’s current level of development. While we all have to go sometime, elimination disorders involve the inappropriate elimination of urine (enuresis) and feces (encopresis). This means any place other than the toilet, such as in underwear, in the bed, or on the floor. Of course, it is common for children to have occasional accidents. However, elimination disorders are diagnosed when the improper elimination is recurrent in potty-trained children over 5 years of age.

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wetting occurs during sleeping hours (nocturnal), waking hours (diurnal), or both night and day (nocturnal and diurnal),

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soiling occurs with constipation and overflow incontinence or without constipation and overflow incontinence.

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Encopresis can occur when a child defecates in their pants. Enuresis can occur when a child urinates on the floor, wets the bed, etc.

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is defined as repeated defecation in inappropriate places when it is developmentally expected that an individual would use a toilet (DeVries, 2017). The majority of children diagnosed with encopresis have experienced chronic constipation earlier in life. Involuntary stool withholding, as with constipation, may result in large, hard, and difficult-to-pass stools and can lead to fear of pain associated with defecation. Children may also exhibit more generalized anxiety about toileting, such as fear of using public bathrooms. Voluntary encopresis, which is much less common, may be associated with willful, defiant, or rule-breaking behaviors.

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with disturbances that entail dissatisfaction with the quality, timing, or duration of sleep. As a result of these disturbances, individuals experience daytime distress and impairment, including fatigue, difficulty with cognitive focus, and declines in mood.

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cardiovascular disease, osteoarthritis, and Alzheimer’s disease. Sleep–wake disorders are often comorbid with depression, anxiety, and cognitive changes, and recurring sleep disturbances are, themselves, risk factors for the manifestation of mental illness and substance-use disorders

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a sleep–wake disorder that involves excessive daytime sleepiness due to the inability to maintain good sleep at night (Scammell, 2015). This excessive sleepiness results in recurrent, sudden lapses into sleep, typically lasting from a few seconds to several minutes. These daytime naps may occur at any time without warning, and although the naps may be experienced as refreshing in the short term, the overall poor quality of sleep associated with narcolepsy leaves the individual in a constant state of fatigue. Other symptoms of narcolepsy include sudden loss of muscle tone, paralysis, vivid dreaming (even during brief periods of sleep), and hallucinations.

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sexual response or the ability to experience sexual pleasure

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increase with age. This is likely associated with general declines in health associated with aging

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Partner factors: A partner’s own sexual dysfunction or poor health Relationship factors: Poor communication or incongruent sexual interests Cultural or religious factors: Socialized negative attitudes toward sexuality Medical factors: Medication side effects or a medical condition (in these cases, a diagnosis of sexual dysfunction would not be made) Individual factors: Vulnerability because of poor body image or history of emotional or sexual abuse; psychological difficulties such as depression or anxiety; or stressors such as increased workload or loss of a loved one

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true Lifelong sexual dysfunction often has psychological origins, while acquired sexual dysfunction tends to have both psychological and physiological explanations. For example, erectile failure on the first sexual encounter has been found to be related to having sex with a previously unknown partner, drug or alcohol use, and peer pressure. This negative experience can lead to long-term difficulty with erectile function. Acquired erectile disorder, on the other hand, may be the result of medical conditions such as diabetes or cardiovascular disease.

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In the case of female orgasmic disorder, for instance, generalized dysfunction may be attributable to a variety of factors, including anxiety, religious views, or medical condition such as vulvovaginal atrophy, which is characterized by vaginal pain, itching, and dryness. Situational female orgasmic disorder may be due to discomfort in a certain physical location or lack of attraction to a sexual partner. Additionally, women are more likely to experience orgasm during masturbation than during sexual activity with a partner.

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recurrent failure to get or keep an erection during sexual activity with a partner. Another manifestation of erectile disorder is a significant decrease in the rigidity or hardness of erection. Erectile disorder can lead to low self-esteem or a decreased sense of masculinity. This dysfunction can also affect the individual’s partner, contributing to decreased sexual satisfaction and lessened sexual desire

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b Close sharing about their experiences of bad sex Explanation A person cannot acquire sexual dysfunction from hearing about other persons' unpleasant sexual experiences.

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Sex refers to the biological indicators of male and female as they relate to sex chromosomes and internal and external genitalia. Gender, on the other hand, refers to societal indicators of roles ascribed to boys, girls, men, and women.

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Gender assignment typically occurs at birth, following inspection of the infant’s genitalia. Gender identity, however, is one’s personal experience of being a girl, boy, woman, man, or other gender.

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is the experience of dissatisfaction, anxiety, and distress associated with a gender assignment that does not match an individual’s gender identity

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true An individual with gender dysphoria may express the wish to be another gender, insist that they are another gender, or in the case of children, assert that they will grow up to be another gender. For example, a child assigned male at birth may strongly identify as and desire to be a girl. This child may prefer to dress in traditional girls’ clothing, show strong interest in feminine role models, and play with dolls and kitchen sets while avoiding cars, trucks, and rough-and-tumble sports. When signs of puberty appear, the young person may shave their legs, bind their genitals to make bulges and erections less visible, or seek hormone-suppressing medications. Individuals may also seek sex reassignment surgery

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distress or discomfort as the clinical condition rather than the identity. Adolescents and adults with gender dysphoria are at increased risk for anxiety, depression, and suicidal behaviors

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0.002% to 0.014%

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the gender identity disorder diagnosis from DSM-IV. A diagnosis is necessary to access medical treatments and get insurance coverage for counseling, hormone replacement therapy, and gender reassignment surgery. However, changing the name of the diagnosis is an attempt to diminish stigma associated with the condition and may help with attaining more accurate prevalence estimates.

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The common feature of disruptive, impulse-control, and conduct disorders is a problem controlling one’s emotions and behaviors. While many other psychological disorders involve emotional and behavioral dysregulation, these conditions also involve behaviors that disregard the rights of others, social norms, or authority figures. For example, an individual may be verbally or physically aggressive toward others, destroy property, or intentionally break rules or laws.

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childhood and adolescence, and they are often associated with difficult adjustment during adulthood. These disorders are also more common among males.

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disorders of self-control. For instance, poor control of one’s aggressive behaviors may result in hurting other people or physical damage to property. Poor control of one’s emotions, such as anger, can lead to loss of temper or angry outbursts that may be perceived by others as out of proportion to the situation. Finally, poor control of impulses and compulsions can lead to harmful or illegal activities, such as stealing or setting fires

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d Felix cuts the hair off his sister’s dolls after she tattled on him to their parents. Explanation Felix cutting the hair of his sister's dolls is physical damage to property and is more than retribution for his sister telling on him. Felix might be having difficulty controlling his emotions. Teachers semi-regularly need to explain a grading rubric to an unhappy student, children semi-regularly become upset when they can't have a toy they see in a store, and Wanda might have a good reason to cry when she sees a dog similar to one that had bitten her like having been bitten by a dog previously.

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is the repeated failure to resist urges to steal items, even though the individual does not need the items for personal use or their monetary value. In fact, individuals with kleptomania can often afford to pay for the items and may discard or give them away after stealing them. The act of stealing is also not an expression of anger or retaliation, and there tends to be considerable fear, guilt, and remorse associated with the act. An individual with kleptomania may experience recurring thoughts about stealing or a sense of tension that is relieved only following the theft

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activities that stimulate the brain-reward system. This system is critical to our survival, as food, water, and sex activate the reward center and release dopamine. Because of the pleasurable sensations associated with the release of dopamine, we are more likely to repeat these behaviors and associate them with pleasant memories

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intense feelings of pleasure (often referred to as a high).

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is a disorder of the brain-reward system characterized by compulsive and repetitive engagement in activities associated with immediate pleasure, even when the long-term outcomes are negative.

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It quickly became clear, however, that the opioid medications could be highly addictive - and deadly (Murthy, 2016). In addition to pain relief, these drugs can also produce euphoria, which has led to many individuals taking opioids in larger quantities or for a longer time than prescribed. The widespread misuse of prescription (e.g., codeine, morphine, fentanyl) and illicit non-prescription (e.g., heroin) opioids has been termed the Opioid Epidemic, and is associated with tens of thousands of deaths by overdose each year

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substance related or non-substance related (i.e., behavioral), as is the case with gambling disorder.

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negative consequences associated with frequent and persistent use of substances; these consequences often accumulate after prolonged use. For instance, individuals often neglect their family, home, school, or work obligations and may engage in detrimental, dangerous, or illegal activities to satisfy their addiction (Chavarria et al., 2015). The same pattern of consequences may be seen in non-substance-related addictions as well. Other hallmarks of addiction include preoccupation with the substance or behavior and denial that there is a problem.

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immediate effects of substance use, such as intoxication. In both substance-induced and non-substance-related addictive disorders, the individual tends to experience distress, restlessness, and irritability when attempting to reduce or discontinue use of the addictive substance or behavior. This is known as withdrawal.

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symptoms of distress, restlessness, and irritability associated with reduction or discontinuation of an addctive substance or bahvior

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b induced; use Explanation Substance-induced disorders are those disorders that involve the immediate effects or outcomes of consuming a drug such as intoxication due to alcohol. Substance-use disorders are those disorders that occur because of the cumulative effects of consuming a drug such as amnesia (Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome) after thiamine deficiencies due to alcohol consumption

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physiological dependence (a change in brain circuitry related to repeated ingestion of a substance) and tolerance (requiring more and more of a substance to achieve the original effects).

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the rewards, symptoms, and consequences are similar Currently, gambling disorder is the sole diagnosis in this category. However, with additional research, we may see the inclusion of internet gaming, sex, exercise, and shopping addictions in future versions of the DSM.

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Gambling involves risking something of value on the chance of gaining something of even greater value. Compulsive gambling, an uncontrollable urge to continue gambling despite the consequences, is known as gambling disorder (Nautiyal et al., 2017). These consequences can revolve around money or time spent on gambling, and they can affect the individual’s relationships, job or education, and financial well-being. The individual may establish a pattern of chasing losses, in which larger risks are taken to compensate for previous losses. For example, a person may wager something of greater value, such as their car, in hopes of making up for all the money lost over the previous month. Individuals may also lie about their gambling or resort to theft or fraud to support their addiction. Previous editions of the DSM listed gambling disorder as an impulse-control disorder, though DSM-5 classifies the condition as a behavioral addiction. The prevalence of gambling disorder is about 0.3% and is more commonly diagnosed in men.

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a broad range of disorders that affect how the brain processes information. While many other psychological disorders lead to a decline in cognitive ability, the key factor that differentiates neurocognitive disorders is that the condition is acquired. This means that the cognitive deficit was not present at birth or during early childhood. Furthermore, diagnosis of a neurocognitive disorder indicates evidence that cognitive ability is considerably different from what was attained over the lifespan.

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memory, attention, language, perception, and learning and are attributable to brain injury, disease, or substance/medication use. For example, impact to the head while playing football or during an automobile accident can result in loss of consciousness, amnesia, or disorientation and confusion. Traumatic brain injuries account for 2.5 million emergency room visits, 282,000 hospitalizations, and 50,000 deaths annually (Taylor et al., 2017). While many of these neurocognitive disorders are mild, 2% of the population report disability associated with a major traumatic brain injury. Prolonged substance use and genetic mutation in brain cells can also lead to neurocognitive disorders.

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DSM-5. Evidence of a neurocognitive disorder can come from the individual or a person close to them reporting a significant decline in cognitive functioning. Neuropsychological testing documenting substantial impairment in cognitive functioning is another important factor in diagnosis. The decline in cognitive functioning may or may not interfere with tasks of everyday life, and DSM-5 differentiates between major neurocognitive disorder and minor neurocognitive disorder according to severity of impairment

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a traumatic brain injury Explanation If Raphael hit his head hard enough, there could be tissue damage to his brain, which is traumatic brain injury--one of the neurocognitive disorders. Neurocognitive disorders can affect memory, attention, language, perception, and learning. Here, Raphael's memory for his coworkers' names have been affected by his injury.

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is a neurocognitive disorder characterized by memory loss, disorientation, confusion, impaired judgment, and behavioral changes. It is a fairly common disorder, with prevalence rates ranging from 5–10% of the population (Alzheimer's Association, 2018). The condition tends to be progressive, meaning that it starts slowly and gets worse over time. The risk for developing Alzheimer’s disease increases with age (in fact, risk increases exponentially after an individual reaches the age of 65), though it is not considered a normal part of the aging process. Rather, it is thought to be attributable to genetic mutations in brain cells. Early signs of Alzheimer’s disease may include forgetfulness, difficulty making decisions, and mood swings. As the disease progresses, physical damage occurs in the brain, including plaque deposits and tangles that lead to death of neurons and overall shrinkage of brain tissues. The video below explains how these plaques and tangles affect the brain.

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is the combination of characteristics, beliefs, and behaviors that make us unique. Personality traits tend to be consistent and stable over time and situations, meaning that people act and react the same way over and over

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enduring pattern of characteristics, beliefs, and behaviors that are drastically different from the expectations of the individual’s society and lead to distress and impairment.

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true An individual with a personality disorder has difficulty in social relationships and with social expectations, though the blame for the discord is rarely accepted by the individual. Daily stressors may seem insurmountable, and frustration is intensified by the feeling that others do not understand or appreciate their situation. Due to the strong perception that their thoughts and beliefs are the norm, the individual may exhibit distress, anxiety, depression, and acting out behaviors when experiencing push-back from society. Personality disorders are most likely to receive attention when the distress manifests as self-harm, harm to others, or other illegal activities.

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cluster A cluster B cluster C Odd and eccentric behavior in Cluster A characterizes paranoid personality disorder. Dramatic, emotional, and erratic behavior in Cluster B characterizes borderline personality disorder. Anxious and fearful behavior in Cluster C characterizes obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.

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These personality disorders are characterized by social awkwardness, social withdrawal, and distorted thinking. Disorders in this cluster are diagnostically similar to schizophrenia spectrum disorders. example: Paranoid personality disorder

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This cluster of personality disorders is marked by problems with impulse control, moral reasoning, and the ability to regulate emotions (Turner et al., 2017). Individuals have difficulty relating to others, following social conventions, and may disregard rules, laws, and the feelings of others. example: Borderline personality disorder

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Personality disorders in this cluster are typified by shy, nervous, insecure, and overly cautious behaviors. These disorders are thought to be less impairing than Cluster A or B personality disorders. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

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The central feature of borderline personality disorder is instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotion (Gunderson et al., 2018). This Cluster B personality disorder is characterized by intense emotions and moods that can change quickly. In fact, a key characteristic of borderline personality disorder is black-and-white thinking, in which people and situations are perceived as all good or all bad. The individual is not able to appreciate the grays of life, in which there is a mix of positive and negatives. Individuals with this personality disorder often have trouble calming themselves once emotions are high, and they often attempt to soothe themselves by engaging in impulsive and harmful behaviors like substance use, risky sexual encounters, excessive spending, self-injury (e.g., cutting), and suicidal behaviors (Videler et al., 2019). They may frequently and quickly enter and leave social and romantic relationships, careers, and places of residence. These changes often occur without warning, advance preparation, or consideration of consequences. This short film describes a young woman’s experience with borderline personality disorder.

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A paraphilia describes a strong and persistent sexual interest in objects, situations, or behaviors that are not considered typical by society (Beech et al., 2016). The term is actually an attempt at describing unusual sexual interests, sexual perversion, or sexual deviance in a non-stigmatizing way. These interests can be focused on erotic activities, such as inflicting pain or humiliation on oneself or another, or focused on erotic targets, such as children or non-human objects. The defining factor of a paraphilia is that the sexual urges are equal to or greater than more typical sexual interests, such as intercourse. In other words, the person becomes so preoccupied with the target behavior or object that they become dependent on that behavior or object for sexual satisfaction. As you can imagine, paraphilic disorders are quite controversial. While the urges may seem strange to some, a paraphilia alone does not necessarily indicate a need for clinical treatment (Konrad et al., 2015). A paraphilic disorder is diagnosed when a paraphilia causes distress or impairment in functioning, whether to the individual or to another person. Sexual preferences tend to be a private matter, but paraphilic disorders may lead to harm or risk of harm to others, especially when involving non-consenting adults or children, regardless of consent. There are innumerable distinct paraphilias. However, the DSM-5 lists the most common paraphilic disorders as well as those that are illegal

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Paraphilic Disorders

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Fetishistic disorder is a paraphilic disorder in which sexual arousal and gratification depend on non-living objects or a specific body part (Martin, 2016). Some common objects of fetishism include lingerie, shoes and boots, and leather clothing. Fetishes focusing on body parts do not typically include genitals, but rather fixate on hair, feet, and toes as sources of eroticism. Fetishes can also include both objects and body parts, such as gloves and hands. Although the mere sight of the fetish object may lead to sexual arousal, the individual typically holds, rubs, smells, or tastes the object while masturbating. Alternatively, the individual may prefer that a sexual partner wear or use the fetish object during sexual encounters.

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is a measure epidemiologists use to determine how many individuals are affected by a health condition in a given time period, and these data provide information about the impact of health conditions on overall public health. Epidemiologists at the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA, 2020) investigate prevalence rates of psychological disorders, and results from their 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health reveal that 20% of adults in the United Stated aged 18 or older had a mental illness in the past year. That equates to 51.5 million individuals with psychological disorders. This same survey reported that 15.7% of adolescents (3.8 million) aged 12 to 17 had a major depressive episode during that same period of time. It is important to note that the rates of psychological disorders are disproportionately high among certain populations. Women report higher rates, as do persons of color and individuals from low-income environments.

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c prevalence rates Explanation Epidemiologists and Fran study the prevalence rates of psychological disorders, as we discussed in The Prevalence of Psychological Disorders section above. A more specific look reveals that 4.4% of the global population exhibits symptoms consistent with a depressive disorder and 3.6% with an anxiety disorder.

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suggests that there is not one single factor or event that precipitates a psychological disorder. Rather, it is the complex interactions of a person’s biological makeup, psychological experiences, and social environment that determine their risk for a psychological disorder. The biological aspect of the model accounts for the roles of illness, injury, physiology, and genetics. For example, a construction worker may experience a fall that results in a traumatic brain injury, or a baby can contract an infection that causes swelling of the brain. There are also theories that implicate neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine in psychological disorders, and these theories have credence since many psychiatric medications act on these neurotransmitter pathways. Finally, genetics seem to play a substantial role, as psychological disorders tend to run in families, and new genetic techniques have indicated that variability in certain genes is often associated with psychological disorders.

Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders midterm 3 Flashcards

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