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From Flashcardlet > Chapter 16 - Sensory, Motor, and Integrative Systems > Flashcards

Chapter 16 - Sensory, Motor, and Integrative Systems Flashcards

1
Q

sensation process

A

stimulation of nerve receptor;
transduction of the stimulus;
generation of nerve impulses;
integration of sensory input

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2
Q

sensory receptors

A

microscopic structure;
location of the receptors and the origin of stimuli that activate them;
type of stimulus detected

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3
Q

microscopic structure

A

free nerve endings of first order sensory neurons;
encapsulated nerve endings of first order neurons;
separate cells that synapse with first order sensory neurons

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4
Q

free nerve endings

A

bare dendrites;
lack any structure specializations that can be seen under a light microscope;
receptors for pain, temperature, tickle, itch, and some touch sensations

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5
Q

encapsulated nerve endings

A

dendrites are enclosed in a connective tissue capsule that has a distinctive microscopic structure (laminated corpuscles);
receptors for pressure, vibration, and some touch

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6
Q

separate cells

A 
receptors for some special specialized senses;
hair cells (hearing and equilibrium for inner ear), gustatory receptor cells (taste buds), photoreceptors (retina of eye for vision
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7
Q

generator potential

A

produced by stimulated dendrites of free nerve endings and receptive part of olfactory receptors

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8
Q

receptor potentials

A

trigger release of neuroT through exocytosis of synaptic vesicles

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9
Q

location of receptors and origin of activating stimuli

A

exteroceptors;
interoceptors;
proprioceptors

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10
Q

exteroceptors

A

located at or near external surface of body;
sensitive to stimuli originating outside the body;
provide information about the external environment

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11
Q

interoceptors

A

visceroceptors;
located in blood vessels, muscles, visceral organs, nervous system;
monitors conditions in the internal environment

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12
Q

proprioceptors

A

locared in muscles, tendons, joints, and inner ear;

provide info about body position, muscle length and tension, position and movement of your joints

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13
Q

types of stimulus detected

A 
mechanoreceptors;
thermoreceptors;
nociceptors;
photoreceptors;
chemoreceptors;
osmoreceptors
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14
Q

mechanoreceptors

A 
mechanical stimuli (deformation, stretching, or bending of cells);
provide sensation of touch, pressure, vibration; proprioception, hearing, and equilibrium;
monitor stretching of blood vessels and internal organs
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15
Q

thermoreceptors

A

detect change in temperature

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16
Q

nociceptors

A

respond to painful stimuli resulting from physical or chemical damage to tissue

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17
Q

photoreceptors

A

detect light that strikes the retina of the eye

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18
Q

chemoreceptors

A

detect chemicals in the mouth (taste), nose (smell), and body fluids

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19
Q

osmoreceptors

A

detect osmotic pressure of body fluids

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20
Q

adaptation

A

characteristic of most sensory receptors;
generator potential or receptor potential decreases in amplitude during a maintained, constant stimulus which causes the frequency of nerve impulses in first order neuron to decrease; perception of sensation may fade or disappear even though the stimulus persists;
ex: adapting to a hot shower

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21
Q

tactile sensations

A

includes touch, pressure, itch, tickle;

arise by activation of some type of receptors;

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22
Q

tactile: touch

A

two types: corpuscles of touch, hair root plexuses

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23
Q

corpuscles of touch (Meissner corpuscles)

A

touch receptors located in dermal papillae of hairless skin;
egg shaped mass of dendrites enclosed by a capsule of connective tissue;
rapidly adapting receptors;
generate nerve impulses at onset of touch;
abundant in fingertips, hands, eyelids, tip of tongue, lips, nipples, soles, clitoris, tip of penis

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24
Q

hair root plexuses

A

rapidly adopting touch receptors;
found in hairy skin;
consist of nerve endings wrapped around hair follicles;
detect movements on skin surface that disturb hairs;
ex: insect landing on a hair causes movement of the hair shaft that stimulates here endings

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25
Q

two types of adapting touch receptors

A

type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors (tactile discs);

type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors (Ruffini corpuscles)

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26
Q

Type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors (tactile discs)

A

saucer shape flattened free nerve endings that make contact with epithelial cells (Merkel cells) of the stratum basale;
found in fingertips, hands, lips, and eternal genitalia

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27
Q

Type II cutaneous mechanoreceptors (Ruffini corpuscles)

A

elongated encapsulated receptors located deep in the epidermis, ligaments, and tendons;
present in hands and abundant on soles;
most sensitive to stretching that occurs as digits or limbs are moved

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28
Q

Pressure

A

sustained sensation that is felt over a larger area than touch;
occurs with deformation of deeper tissues;
receptors contribute to sensations of pressure include corpuscles of touch, type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors, and lamellated corpuscles

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29
Q

lamellated corpuscles (pacinian corpuscle)

A

large oval structure composed of multilayers connective tissue capsule that enclosed a dendrite;
adapt rapidly;
widely distributed in the body, dermis and subcutaneous layer, submucosal tissues that underlie mucous and serous membranes, see p 550.

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30
Q

thermoreceptors

A

free nerve endings that have receptive fields 1 mm in diameter on skin surface;
two distinct thermal sensations (cold and warmth) are detected by different receptors

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31
Q

cold receptors

A

located within stratum baseless of epidermis;
attached to medium diameter myelinated A fibers;
few connect to small diameter unmyelinated C fibers;
temp between 10-40 degrees C (50-105 F) activate cold receptors

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32
Q

warm receptors

A

not as abundant as cold receptors;
located in dermis;
attached to small diameter unmyelinated C fibers;
activated by temps between 32-48 C (90-118 F)

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33
Q

Cold and Warm receptors

A

adapt rapidly at onset of a stimulus;
continue to generate impulses at a lower frequency throughout a prolonged stimulus;
temps below 10 C and above 48 C stimulate pain receptors rather than thermoreceptors producing painful sensations

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34
Q

pain sensations

A

indispensable for survival;

serves a protective function by signaling presence of noxious tissue damaging conditions

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35
Q

nociceptors

A

receptors of pain;
free nerve endings found in every tissue of the body except the brain;
activated by intense thermal, mechanical, or chemical stimuli;
stimulated by tissue irritation, injury that releases chemicals such as prostaglandins, kinins, and potassium ions;
pain-mediating chemicals linger b/c nociceptors exhibit very little adaptation;
elicit prolonged muscular contractions, muscles spasms, or ischemia

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36
Q

ischemia

A

inadequate blood flow to an organ

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37
Q

referred pain

A

instances of visceral pain;
just deep to the skin that overlies the stimulated organ or in a surface area far from the stimulated organ;
visceral organ involved and area to which pain is referred are served by the same segment of the spinal cord;
pain of a heart attack is felt in skin over the hear and along the left arm

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38
Q

proprioceptive sensations (proprioception)

A

allow us to recognize parts of our body belong to us;
allow us to know where our head and limbs are located, how they are moving;
arise in receptors termed proprioceptors

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39
Q

kinesthesia

A

perception of bed movements

40
Q

proprioceptors

A

embedded in muscles and tendons;
informs us of degree to which muscles are contracted, among of tension on tendons, and positions of joints;
adapt slowly and only slightly;
brain continually receives nerve impulses related to position of different body parts and makes adjustments to ensure coordination;

41
Q

weight discrimination

A

allowed by proprioceptors;

helps you to determine the muscular effort necessary to perform a task

42
Q

two types of proprioceptors

A 
muscle spindles (within skeletal muscle);
tendon organs (within tendons);
joint kinesthetic receptors (within synovial joint capsules)
43
Q

muscle spindles

A

proprioceptors in skeletal muscles that monitor changes in length of skeletal muscles;
participate in stretch reflexes;
consists of several slowly adapting nerve endings that wrap around 3-10 specialized muscle fibers;
function: measure muscle length (how much a muscle is being stretched);
contain motor neurons (gamma motor neurons);
surrounded by extrafusal muscle fibers (ordinary skeletal muscle fibers);
extrafusal muscle fibers are supplied by alpha motor neurons (large diameter A fibers)

44
Q

where are extrafusal muscle and alpha motor neurons located?

A

anterior gray horn of the spinal cord or in brain stem for muscles in the head

45
Q

tendon organs

A

located at the junction of a tendon and a muscle;
protect tendons and their associated muscles from damage due to excessive tension;
consists of a thin capsule of connective tissue that enclosed a few tendon fascicles (bundles of collagen fibers);
when tension applied to muscle, generate nerve impulses that propagate into CNS providing info about changes in muscle tension;

46
Q

joint kinesthetic receptors

A

present within and around the articular capsules of synovial joints;
joint position and movement

47
Q

somatic sensory pathways

A

relay info from the somatic sensory receptors to primary somatosensory area in the cerebral cortex and to the cerebellum;
consists of thousands of sets of three neurons: first order, second order, and third order

48
Q

first order neurons

A

conduct impulses from somatic receptors into the brain stem or spinal cord;
face, mouth, etch and eyes propogate along cranial nerves into the brain stem;
from neck, trunk, limns and posterior aspect of head, propagate along spinal nerves into the spinal cord

49
Q

second order neurons

A

conduct impulse from the brain stem and spinal cord to thalamus;
axons decussate in brain stem or spinal cord before ascending to ventral posterior nucleus of thalamus;
thus, all somatic sensory info from one side of the body reaches the thalamus on opposite side

50
Q

third order neurons

A

conduct impulses from the thalamus to primary somatosensory ares of correct on same side

51
Q

relay stations

A

regions within CNS where neurons synapse with other neurons that are a part of a particular sensory or motor pathway;
neural signals are being relayed fromone region of CNS to another

52
Q

primary somatosensory area (postcentral gyrus)

A

occupies the post central cry of the parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex;
each region receives sensory input from a different part of the body

53
Q

primary motor area (precentral gyrus)

A

frontal lobe; pyramidal cells predominate;
voluntary initiation of finely controlled movements by specific muscles or groups of muscles, usually on opposite sides of the body

54
Q

direct motor pathways (pyramidal pathways)

A

nerve impulses for voluntary movements propagate from cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons;
consists of axons that descend from pyramidal cells;
consists of corticospinal pathways and corticobulbar pathway

55
Q

pyramidal cells

A

upper motor neurons with pyramid shaped cell bodies;

located in primary motor area and premotor area of cerebral cortex (areas 4 & 6)

56
Q

corticospinal pathways

A

conduct impulses for the control of muscles of the limbs and trunk;
axons of upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex form the corticospinal tracts

57
Q

corticospinal tracts

A

descend through the internal capsule of the cerebrum and the cerebral peduncle of the midbrain;
two types: lateral and anterior

58
Q

lateral corticospinal tract

A

lateral white column of the spinal cord;
axons decussate in the medulla;
anterior roots control movements of distal parts of limbs;
distal roots responsible for precise agile and highly skilled movements of the hands and feet

59
Q

anterior corticospinal tract

A

axons do not decussate in the medulla;
anterior white column of spinal cord;
control movements of trunk and proximal parts of limbs

60
Q

corticobulbar pathway

A

conducts impulses for the control of skeletal muscles in the head;
axons of upper motor neurons from the cerebral corte from the corticobulbar tract

61
Q

corticobulbar tract

A

descends along with the corticospinal tracts through the internal capsule of the cerebrum and cerebral peduncle of the midbrain;
some axons decussate, others do not;
axons terminate in motor nuclei of nine pairs of cranial nerves in the brain stem;
lower motor neurons of cranial nerves convey impulses that control precise, voluntary movements of the eyes, tongue, neck , plus chewing, facial expression, speech, and swallowing

62
Q

9 pairs of cranial nerves in brain stem where corticobulbar axons terminate

A

oculomotor (III), trochlear (IV), trigeminal (V), abducens (VI), facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X), accessory (XI), hypoglassal (XII).

63
Q

integrative functions of the cerebrum

A

include cerebral activities: sleep and wakefulness, learning and memory, emotional responses

64
Q

circadian rhythms

A

24 hour cycle;
established by suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus;
cerebral corte is very active during wakefulness

65
Q

reticular activating system (RAS)

A

when area is active, nerve impulses are transmitted to widespread areas of the cerebral cortex, both directly and via the thalamus;
effect is a generalized increase in cortical activity

66
Q

arousal

A

awakening from sleep;
RAS must be stimulated;
many sensory stimuli can activate RAS: painful stimuli detected by nociceptors, touch and pressure on skin, movement of the limbs, bright light, alarm clock;
once activated, cerebral cortex is also activated and arousal occurs

67
Q

consciousness

A

state of wakefulness

68
Q

sleep

A

state of altered consciousness or partial unconsciousness from which an individual can be aroused;
exact functions are unclear;
sleep deprivation impairs attention, learning, and performance

69
Q

2 components of normal sleep

A

non-rapid eye movement (NREM);

rapid eye movement (REM)

70
Q

4 NREM sleep merging stages - stage 1

A

Stage 1 - transition between wakefulness and sleep;
lasts 1-7 minutes;
person is relaxed with eyes closed and has fleeting thoughts;
people awakened during this stage often say they are not sleeping

71
Q

stage 2

A 
light sleep:
first stage of true sleep;
person is a little more difficult to awake;
fragments of dreams;
eyes may slowly roll from side to side
72
Q

stage 3

A

period of moderately deep sleep;
body temp and blood pressure decrease;
difficult to awaken person;
occurs 20 minutes after falling asleep

73
Q

stage 4

A 
deepest level of sleep;
brain metabolism decreases significantly;
body temp drops slightly;
reflexes are intact;
muscle tone decreased only slightly;
sleepwalking can occur
74
Q

amount of time needed to go from stage 1 to stage 4

A

less than one hour

75
Q

REM sleep

A

3-5 episodes during a 7-8 hour sleep period;
eyes move rapidly back and forth under closed eyelids;
person may rapidly ascend through stages 3 and 2 before entering REM;
first episode lasts 10-20 minutes, another interval of NREM follows;
totals 90-120 minutes during typical sleep period;
occurs approximately every 90 minutes, gradually lengthen, final one lasts 50 minutes

76
Q

REM and aging

A

as you age, time spent sleeping decreases and REM % declines;
infant sleep: 50%;
2 y/o: 35%;
adults: 25%

77
Q

why do infants and children need so much sleep

A

assumed to be important for maturation of the brain;
neuronal activity is high during REM sleep;
brain blood flow and oxygen use are higher during REM sleep than during mental or physical activity while awake

78
Q

parts of brain that mediate NREM and REM sleep

A

NREM: neurons in the pre optic area of the hypothalamus, the basal forebrain, and the medulla oblongata;
REM: neurons in the pons and midbrain

79
Q

sleep inducer

A

adenosine - accumulates during periods of high ATP use by nervous system

80
Q

adenosine and sleep

A

binds to specific receptors (A1 receptors) and inhibits certain cholinergic (acetylcholine-releasing) neurons of RAS that participate in arousal;
therefore activity in RAS during sleep is low

81
Q

caffeine, tea (theophylline), and adenosine

A

both maintain wakefulness;
bind to and block the A1 receptors;
prevent adenosine from binding and inducing sleep

82
Q

insomnia

A

difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep;

causes include stress, caffeine intake, disruption of circadian rhythms and depression

83
Q

sleep apnea

A

person repeatedly stops breathing for 10 or more seconds;

due to loss of muscle tone in pharyngeal muscles that allow airway to collapse

84
Q

narcolepsy

A

REM sleep cannot be inhibited during waking periods;
involuntary periods of sleep lasting 15 minutes occur throughout the day;
patients may have a deficiency of orexin (neuropeptide/hypocretin) - released from certain neurons of hypothalamus and has a role in promoting wakefulness

85
Q

learning

A

ability to acquire new information or skills through instruction or experience

86
Q

memory

A

process by which information acquired through learning is stored and retrieved

87
Q

plasticity

A

capability for change associated with learning;
experience must produce persistent structural and functional changes that represent the experience;
exhibited in the primary somatosensory and primary motor areas

88
Q

parts of brain involved with memory

A

association areas of the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes, parts of the limbic system (hippocampus and amygdala), the diencephalon

89
Q

immediate memory

A

ability to recall ongoing experiences for a few seconds;
provides perspective to the present time that allows us to know where we are and what we are doing;
brain areas include: hippocampus, mammillary bodies, 2 nuclei of the thalamus (anterior and medial nuclei)

90
Q

short term memory

A

temporary ability to recall a few pieces of information for seconds to minutes;
brain areas include: hippocampus, mammillary bodies, 2 nuclei of the thalamus (anterior and medial nuclei)

91
Q

long term memory

A

information in short term can be transformed into a more permanent type of memory;
lasts from days to years;
can be retrieved for use whenever needed;
only 1% of info that comes to our consciousness is stored;
what goes in is eventually forgotten

92
Q

memory consolidation

A

reinforcement that results in frequent retrieval of a piece of information;
stored in wide regions of cerebral cortex:
motor skills stored in basal nuclei and cerebellum and cerebral cortex

93
Q

amnesia

A

lack or loss of memory;
total or partial inability to remember past experiences;
person recovering, recent memories return last

94
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

memory loss for events that occur after trauma or disease that caused condition;
inability to form new memories

95
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

memory loss for events that occurred before the trauma or disease that caused condition;
inability to recall past events;
cannot remember anything that occurred during 30 minutes before amnesia developed

96
Q

long term potentiation (LTP)

A

underlies some aspects of memory;
transmission at some synapses within the hippocampus is enhanced (potentiated) for hours or weeks after a brief period of high frequency stimulation;
neuroT released is glutamate, which acts on NMDA glutamate receptors on the postsynaptic neurons;
induction of LTP depends on the release of nitric oxide (NO) from postsynaptic neurons after they have been activated by glutamate;
NO diffuses into presynaptic neurons and causes LTP

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