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Human Physiology - BIO 3322 > Chapter 17 - Digestive System > Flashcards

Chapter 17 - Digestive System Flashcards

1
Q

What is the order in which a food molecule will encounter the digestive tract?

A
  1. Pharynx
  2. Esophagus
  3. stomach
  4. duodenum
  5. cecum
  6. transverse colon
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2
Q

what are the main 4 tunics of the digestive tract?

A
  1. serosa
  2. muscularis externa
  3. submucosa
  4. mucosa
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3
Q

Muscularis externa tunic

A
  • muscle tissue
  • outer smooth muscle for length
  • inner layer controls radius
  • enteric nervous system & myenteric plexus
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4
Q

Submucosa tunic

A
  • connective tissue
  • submucosal plexus
  • located within muscularis externa
  • contains nerves, circulatory and lymphatics
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5
Q

Mucosa Tunic

A
  • forms lumen
  • three sublayers:
    1. muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle; thin)
    2. lamina propria (loose connective)
    3. epithelial tissue forming lumen
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6
Q

Serosa tunic

A
  • contiguous with mesenteries
  • contains blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics
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7
Q

Peristalsis

A
  • ** wavelike movements** through coordinated contraction of circular smooth muscle (controls radius) behind a bolus, and relaxation of circular sooth muscle in front of it.
  • bolus moves forward
  • contraction of longitudinal smooth muscle (length) which sends bolus forward (inchworm)
    -** short distance** waves
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8
Q

segmentation

A
  • simultaneous muscle contractions of circular smooth muscle in front of AND behind bolus
  • back and forth movements
  • bolus gets mixed with digestive secretions
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9
Q

Mechanical digestion

A
  • begins in oral cavity
  • does NOT break chemical bonds
  • goal is to increase surface area for chemical digestion
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10
Q

Chemical digestion

A
  • begins in oral cavity but peaks in stomach and small intestine
  • carried out by enzymes
  • breaks chemical bonds to generate small molecules from large molecules
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11
Q

____________and ____________ are the last of the major digestive processes.

A

secretion; absorption

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12
Q

Secretion

A
  • movement of substance from cells into the lumen
  • e.g. secretion of HCl into stomach to start digestion
  • PRODUCES ACID IN STOMACH
  • highly selective
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13
Q

Absorption

A
  • movement of a substance from the lumen to cells
  • highly selective process by specific region
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14
Q

Functions of the oral cavity

A
  1. protects mouth/digestive system against physical and chemical abrasions and food-borne pathogens
  2. Increasing surface area of food
  3. Coating food with saliva
  4. Initiation of swallowing to deliver food to the stomach
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15
Q

Mastication

A

Chewing

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16
Q

Features of mastication

A
  • mechanical digestion
  • increases surface area
  • mixes food with saliva
  • under control of medulla oblongata
  • done w/ teeth
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17
Q

What teeth are for cutting and tearing food?

A

incisors (8) and canines (4)

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18
Q

What teeth are for crushing and grinding?

A

premolars (8) and molars (12)

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19
Q

What are all the components of saliva?

A
  • water
  • electrolytes
  • mucous
  • leukocytes
  • epithelial cells
  • glycoproteins
  • enzymes
  • IgA
  • lysozymes
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20
Q

Main features/functions of saliva

A
  • pH between 6.5-7.5
  • moistens epithelia and liquefies food
  • 5% of polysaccharide breakdown (salivary amylase)
  • innate immunity due to antimicrobial lysozyme and IgA
  • secretion is stimulated by facial and glossopharyngeal nerves(CN VII & CN IX) in response to varied stimuli
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21
Q

Saliva is secreted into oral cavity by 3 glands:

A
  1. parotid gland
  2. submandibular gland
  3. sublingual gland
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22
Q

What are the 3 phases of deglutition?

A
  • swallowing = deglutition
    1. voluntary phase
    2. pharyngeal phase
    3. esophageal phase
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23
Q

Voluntary phase of swallowing

A
  • mouth, tongue, teeth, and secretions make bolus
  • tongue pushes bolus against hard palate and toward back of oral cavity into oropharynx and detected by receptors in pharyngeal wall
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24
Q

Pharyngeal phase of swallowing

A
  • contact of food w/ sensory receptors in posterior wall of oropharynx —> afferent info through trigeminal (CN 5) and glossopharyngeal (CN IX) nerves to swallowing center in medulla
  • motor info travels —> trigeminal (CN V), glossopharyngeal (CN IX), vagus, and accessory nerves to soft palate and pharynx
  • upper esophageal sphincter relaxes (involuntary)
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25
Q

Esophageal phase of swallowing

A
  • ends swallowing process
  • lower esophagus = smooth muscle (unconsciously controlled)
  • upper esophagus = skeletal muscle (conscious control to initiate swallowing)
  • food travels through esophagus –> stim. stretch receptors –> signal enteric nerve plexus to smooth muscle –> stim. contraction and peristalsis waves
    - activates efferent neurons
  • food enters stomach
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26
Q

Stomach

A
  • short-term storage reservoir
  • mix and grind stomach contents w/ HCl and pepsin –> chyme
  • cont. chemical and enzymatic digestion (proteins)
  • move chyme into small intestine
  • connects to esophagus in cardiac region
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27
Q

What are gastric pits?

A

openings for secretions into the stomach
- parietal cells
- chief cells
- G cells (gastrin)
- D cells (somatostatin)
- Enterochromaffin cells

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28
Q

chyme

A

an acidic fluid containing partially digested food

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29
Q

chief cells

A

secrete and synthesize pepsins (major proteases active in stomach)
- contain hormone receptors that stimulate pepsin release
- preproenzyme –> pepsinogen –> pepsin

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30
Q

what are the pepsins synthesized by chief cells?

A
  • endopeptidases that recognize A.A. sequences embedded within proteins

responsible for bulk of protein digestion

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31
Q

Exopeptidases

A

cleave peptides from the ends of proteins into single amino acids

includes carboxypeptidase

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32
Q

Parietal cells

A
  • secrete HCl to a concentration of ~160 mM (0.8 pH) using active transport
  • regulated by paracrine signaling
  • secrete bicarbonate on basolateral side
  • secrete intrinsic factor
  • use enzyme, carbonic anhydrase to combine CO2 and H2O into carbonic acid (H2CO3)
  • secrete H+ via active transport w/ H+/K+ ATPase proton pump
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33
Q

Enterochromaffin (ECL) cells

A
  • secrete histamine to stimulate acid secretion
  • Binds H2 receptors on parietal cells to stimulate their HCl secretion
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34
Q

D cells

A
  • secrete somatostatin
  • inhibits gastrin and histamine secretion
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35
Q

G cells

A
  • secrete gastrin in response to food in lumen and stomach distension
  • binds receptors on basolateral side of parietal cells to stimulate HCl release
  • also stimulates pepsin (chief cells) and histamine (ECL cells) secretion
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36
Q

Proton Pump

A
  • parietal cells secrete H+ into stomach lumen via H+/K+ - ATPase
  • Cl- ions are transported into lumen via conductance channels
  • HCl is formed in the lumen
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37
Q

Gastric/duodenal ulcer

A
  • break in normal tissue lining stomach or small intestine
  • benign ulcers caused by imbalance between defenses of stomach mucosal lining and the secretion of acid and pepsin
  • 90% of all cases are bc of the bacteria H. pylori
  • stress/spicy foods do NOT cause/worsen ulcers
  • most receptive inhibitors: H2 receptor antagonists and proton pump inhibitors
  • can also be treated w/ antacids, antibiotics, and dietary changes
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38
Q

Interstitial cells of Cajal

A

within greater curvature of stomach; act as pacemaker cells
- stimulate tonic (w/o outside stimulation) contractions

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39
Q

Pacemaker potentials

A

reduce the threshold for contraction of smooth muscle and can lead to burst of action potential/smooth muscle contraction

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40
Q

Steps of stomach motility contractions

A
  1. food mixes with stomach secretions to form chyme
  2. tonic smooth muscle contractions
  3. phasic (stim. by nervous system/hormones/food) smooth muscle contraction
  4. upper stomach expands, keeps constant pressure
  5. mixing waves push chyme towards pyloric sphincter
  6. stomach distension stimulates gastrin release
  7. pyloric sphincter relaxes, food is pushed into duodenum
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41
Q

Functions of small intestine

A
  • mix liver and pancreatic secretions w/ chyme
  • to continue digesting carbohydrates and proteins, and to initiate fat digestion
  • absorb nutrients
  • move chyme to large intestine
  • produce hormones that regulate digestive system
  • produce increased numbers of immune cells that protect against pathogens associated with food and microbiome
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42
Q

How much digestion occurs in small intestine?

A

90%

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43
Q

Three parts of small intestine

A
  1. duodenum
  2. jejunum
  3. ileum
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44
Q

Duodenum

A
  • shortest segment (4%)
  • duodenal papillae: common bile duct and pancreatic duct join w/ hepatopancreatic ampulla (allows small intestine to receive secretion from liver, pancreas, and gallbladder)
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45
Q

Duodenum

A
  • shortest segment (4%)
  • duodenal papillae: common bile duct and pancreatic duct join w/ hepatopancreatic ampulla (allows small intestine to receive secretion from liver, pancreas, and gallbladder)
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46
Q

Plicae

A

series of large projections formed by mucosa and submucosal layers

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47
Q

Villi

A

finger-like projections formed by mucosal layer; 0.5-1.5 mm in length (formation stim. by contraction of mucosal layer)
- lacteal: blood capillary network inferior to each villus

48
Q

Brush border

A

major site of nutrient digestion and absorption; formed by microvilli

49
Q

The intestinal epithelia lining the lumen of small intestine consists of:

A
  • absorptive cells
  • granular cells
  • goblet cells
  • enteroendocrine cells
  • all continuously replaced as stem cells divide w/in tubular invaginations of mucosal layer aka intestinal crypts (at base of each villus)
50
Q

absorptive cells

A

have increased microvilli and produce digestive enzymes

51
Q

granular cells

A

participate in immune protection of small intestine

52
Q

goblet cells

A

produce protective mucus

53
Q

enteroendocrine cells

A

produce many different hormones

54
Q

There is a (____) in number of (____) and (____) as the intestine progesses.

A

There is a decrease in number of plicae and villi as the intestine progesses

55
Q

What are the major sites of nutrient reabsorption?

A

duodenum and jejunum

56
Q

Peyer’s patches

A

lymphoid nodules; numerous in ileum mucosal and submucosal layers
- play an important role in immune surveillance and part of gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)

57
Q

the ileum and large intestine join at the:

A

ileocecal junction (has a ring of smooth muscle, a sphincter, and the one-way ileocecal valve)

58
Q

Describe motility in the small intestine

A
  • both segmentation and peristalsis occur
  • very few peristaltic contractions travel entire length
  • slow chyme movement allows time for digestion
  • ileocecal sphincter mildly contracted
59
Q

describe the secretions from small intestine into the lumen

A
  • do NOT contain HCl or pepsin
  • contains mucus, electrolytes, and water (duodenal glands, intestinal glands, and goblet cells)
    -intestinal mucosal enzymes attached to microvilli forming brush border (disaccharides, peptidases, and nucleases)
  • hormones (Enterogastrones) released into bloodstream: cholecystokinin (CCK), gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP), secretin
60
Q

describe the secretions into small intestine from accessory organs

A
  • liver and pancreatic secretions –> duodenum
  • pancreas supplies digestive enzymes and an alkaline broth to neutralize
  • liver and gallbladder provide bile salts that aid in lipid digestion
61
Q

Appendicitis

A
  • inflammation of appendix
  • Symptoms: lower abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, decreased appetite
  • Causes: appendix blockage by calcified fragments of feces, inflamed lymphoid tissue, parasites, gallstones or tumors
  • Treatment: surgical removal of appendix
62
Q

Functions of large intestine

A
  • absorption of water from remaining chyme –> semi-solid feces
  • secretion of protective mucus and facilitation of movement of undigested food
  • provides a hospitable area for growth of extensive bacterial colonies that metabolize nutrients and steroids, produce vitamin K, and prevent growth of pathogenic bacteria
  • production of large #s of immune cells organized into Peyer’s patches and primary follicles –> protection
63
Q

Large intestine extends from ________________ to the ____ and consists of:

A

ileocecal sphincter; anus; cecum, colon, and rectum

64
Q

Cecum includes:

A

vermiform appendix (small, closed tube studded w/ lymph nodules providing immune surveillance)

65
Q

What is the large intestine beyond the cecum called?

A

colon

66
Q

Colon features

A
  • 2 m in length
  • made up of 4 parts: ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid
  • does not form folds/villi
  • does have tubular crypts
  • circular smooth muscle layer –> complete
  • longitudinal muscle layer –> incomplete
    - 3 bands: teniae coli: run entire length of colon –> segmented appearance (each segment is called a haustrum)
67
Q

How much chyme enters the cecum each day?

A

~2 L of chyme enters each day and >90% of volume is reabsorbed leaving ~200mL to be eliminated

68
Q

Rectum

A

straight, muscular tube that extends from sigmoid colon to the anal canal
- thick smooth muscle layer forming internal anal sphincter (involuntary motor control)
- skeletal muscle forms the external anal sphincter(voluntary motor control)

69
Q

Describe motility in large intestine

A
  • peristalsis moves chyme through ascending colon
  • mass movements occur 3-4 times a day in transverse and descending colon; lead to defecation reflex
  • enterocolic reflex (stomach) and the duodenocolic reflex (small intestine) are changes in volume
70
Q

Describe the secretions of large intestine

A
  • colon’s mucosal layer is lined w/ goblet cells and crypts
  • large mass of gut flora produces acid in colon
  • increased NaCl in colon pulls water through the colon wall by osmosis
  • diarrhea: caused by increased colon secretion leading to distention of the colon and abnormal frequent discharge of fluid feces
71
Q

What is the largest solid internal organ?

A

liver

72
Q

Functions of liver

A
  • detoxify a wide range of chemicals brought into body
  • metabolizes and interconverts nutrients into a wide range of forms for storage/use by other tissues
73
Q

Function of gallbladder

A

stores bile until it’s needed for fat digestion

74
Q

Bile consists of:

A

water, ions, and bile salts

75
Q

Pathway bile salts take to enter small intestine:

A
  1. bile salts produced by liver and moves through right and left hepatic ducts to fuse w/ the common hepatic duct
  2. bile salts move through the ducts bc of peristalsis
  3. bile salts also stored w/in gallbladder and move through the cystic duct to fuse w/ the common hepatic duct –> becomes common bile duct as it passes through pancreas
  4. common bile duct and pancreatic duct fuse into single pancreatic duct, which takes bile salts and all pancreatic secretions into duodenum through sphincter of Oddi.
76
Q

Cholelithiasis

A

gallstones

77
Q

Lobes of liver

A

major lobes: left and right
minor lobes: caudate and quadrate

78
Q

Septa

A

branching walls made of connective tissue that makeup the 3D structure of liver (blood, lymphatic vessels, and ducts)

79
Q

Lobules of liver

A

each lobule is hexagonal w/ portal triads at vertices and a central vein in middle
- formed by hepatic portal vein, a hepatic artery, and a bile duct

80
Q

Hepatocytes

A
  • produce bile, metabolize nutrients, detoxify harmful substances, and synthesize blood components
  • adjoined polyganol-shaped cells
  • space of Disse: space between endothelium and hepatocytes; collects lymph for delivery to lymphatic capillaries
81
Q

Hepatic Portal System

A
  • majority of liver’s blood is venous blood
  • ~75% of blood is from portal vein —> empties into hepatic sinusoids
  • remove O2 and nutrients from blood to support metabolic needs
  • plasma is filtered into space between endothelium and hepatocytes
  • blood drains from sinusoids into central vein of each lobule –> C.V. drain into larger hepatic vein –> exits liver –> inferior vena cava
82
Q

Order of ingested food molecule:

A
  1. duodenal mucosa
  2. hepatic portal vein
  3. sinusoid
  4. hepatocytes
  5. central vein
  6. hepatic vein
  7. vena cava
  8. right atrium of heart
  9. systemic artery
83
Q

Bile

A
  • complex fluid containing water, electrolytes, and organic molecules (bile acids, cholesterol, lecithin, and bilirubin)
  • emulsifies fat products –> micelles
  • aids in absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
  • neutralizes acidic chyme
  • flows through biliary tract –> small intestine
  • flow is lowest during fasting
84
Q

Whenever chyme enters small intestine, acid and partially digested fats and proteins stimulate the secretion of ____________ and ___________.

A

cholecystokinin (CCK) and secretin

85
Q

Cholecystokinin is released in response to what?

A

presence of fat in duodenum
- after, CCK stimulates contractions of gallbladder and common bile duct –> bile to small intestine

86
Q

Secretin is released in response to what?

A

acid in duodenum
- after, it stimulates biliary duct cells to secrete bicarbonate and water –> expands volume of bile and increases flow into intestine

87
Q

Functions of pancreas

A
  • produces a watery secretion that is rich in HCO3-
  • produces enzymes that aid in chemical digestion
88
Q

Islets of Langerhans

A

small clusters of cells that secrete insulin, glucagon, etc.
- arranged in grape-like clusters (acini)
- pancreatic exocrine glands w/ ducts

89
Q

Secretions of pancreas

A
  • pancreatic juice (stim. as food enters stomach)
  • made of: digestive enzymes and HCO3-
90
Q

Majority of proteins are digested by:

A

pancreatic proteases

91
Q

2 major pancreatic proteases are:

A

trypsin and chymotrypsin (inactive forms are trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen)
- CANNOT digest proteins/peptides into single amino acids

92
Q

Trypsinogen

A
  • embedded in intestinal mucosa
  • activated by the enzyme enterokinase by cleavage of a specific peptide sequence therefore changing its structure and function
  • once trypsin is made, it activates chymotrypsinogen by cleavage of another specific peptide sequence
93
Q

Carboxypeptidase

A

can break peptides into single A.A.s

94
Q

Cholecystokinin (CCK)

A
  • hormone secreted and synthesized by duodenal endocrince cells
  • presence of partially digested proteins and fats in small intestine stimulates CCK secretion into blood
  • CCK binds to receptors on pancreatic acinar cells, stimulating them to secrete large quantities of digestive enzymes
95
Q

Secretin

A
  • produced by duodenal exocrine cells in response to acid in the duodenum when chyme enters from stomach
  • stimulates pancreatic duct cells to secrete water and HCO3- (digestive enzymes secreted by acinar cells are flushed out of pancreas to duodenum)
96
Q

Gastrin

A
  • secreted in large amounts by stomach in repsonse to gastric distention and irritation of stomach wall
  • stimulates pancreatic acinar cells –> secrete digestive enzymes
97
Q

Local control of digestive system from enteric nervous sytem in ________ and ________ plexuses.

A

submucosal; myenteric

98
Q

Higher level control of digestive system comes from both ________ and ________ branch of ANS.

A

sympathetic; parasympathetic

99
Q

2 neural-reflex arcs

A

short and long reflexes

100
Q

short reflex arc

A

all reflex components are present w/in GI tract itself

101
Q

Long reflex arc

A

begin w/ receptors in GI tract that send afferent signals to CNS which sends back an efferent signal to enteric plexi and GI effector cells

102
Q

3 major types of enteric neurons

A
  1. sensory neurons
  2. motor neurons
  3. interneurons
103
Q

Sensory neurons

A

detect chemical changes in the composition of the digestive tract contents, and mechanical changes in digestive tract wall (Stretch)

104
Q

Motor neurons

A

stimulate/inhibit smooth muscle contraction or glandular secretion

105
Q

Interneurons

A

integrate signals between afferent and efferent neurons

106
Q

(T/F): the enteric nervous system is capable of controlling the digestive tract independently of the CNS

A

True
ex. basal electrical rhythm

107
Q

Pancreatic amylase

A

hydrolyzes starch into maltose

108
Q

Lecithin

A

helps break down fats into mecelles

109
Q

Septa of liver

A

branching network of connective tissue forming walls

110
Q

Hepatic cords

A

radiate out from each central vein; filled with hepatocytes

111
Q

Bile Cannaliculus

A

cleft-like lumen lying between each hepatic cord

112
Q

Carbohydrate Digestion

A

Oral cavity
- polysaccharides and disaccharides are converted into smaller polysaccharides and maltose by salivary amylase
Small intestine
- pancreatic amylase converts into disaccharides
- disaccharides into monosaccharides

113
Q

Protein digestion

A

begins in stomach
- pepsin converts proteins into small polypeptides
Small intestine
- uses pancreatic trypsin and chymotrypsin into smaller polypeptides
- pancreatic carboxypeptidases convert to small peptides
- Dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase, and aminopeptidase convert to amino acids

114
Q

Nucleic acid digestion

A

Small intestine
- DNA and RNA converted to nucleotides by pancreatic nucleases
- Nucleotidases convert nucleotides into nucleosides
- Nucleosidases and phosphatases convert into nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphates

115
Q

Fat digestion

A

Small intestine
- fat (triglycerides) converted into glycerol, fatty acids, and monoglycerides by pancreatic lipase

116
Q

Tissue layers of digestive tract in order you would encounter moving from the lumen to the abdominal cavity

A
  • mucosal epithelium
  • lamina propria
  • muscularis mucosa
  • submucosa
  • circular layer of smooth muscle
  • myenteric plexus
  • longitudinal layer of smooth muscle
  • serosa

Human Physiology - BIO 3322 (14 decks)

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