Chapter 19 - Decolonisation in Africa and Asia (SECTION 4)

Question 1

What were the 5 reasons for decolonisation of the Empire?

Answer 1

1) Economic impact of WW2.
2) The changed international situation.
3) Emergence of nationalism.
4) Changing priorities in Europe.
5) Specific problems.

Question 2

How did the economic impact of WW2 provide reasoning for decolonisation?

Answer 2

1) All of the imperial powers emerged from the war economically much poorer than they entered it.
2) None could really afford to fight a series of prolonged colonial wars, fighting against insurgent nationalist movements who made imperialist movements unsustainable.

Question 3

How did changing international situations provide reasoning for decolonisation?

Answer 3

1) The USA and USSR were both hostile to old-style European imperialism.
2) Since Britain and other colonial powers were heavily dependent on the USA for defence and economic support, they were susceptible to American pressure to speed up decolonisation.

Question 4

How did the emergence of powerful nationalist movements provide reasoning for decolonisation?

Answer 4

1) Movements to secure independence from the European empires and establish free independent states appeared in all parts of the world.
2) The strategies employed to secure these aims varied, but all posed a challenge to the imperial governments.

Question 5

How did changing priorities in Europe provide reasoning for decolonisation?

Answer 5

1) By the 1950s, Western Europe was experiencing a post-war economic recovery, with full employment and rising living standards.
2) This made it less dependent on colonial support.
3) When the British joined the European Economic Community in 1973, trade within Europe became a focus.
4) As a result of the EEC created in 1957, support for empire dwindled in all main European powers.

Question 6

How did specific problems provide reasoning for decolonisation?

Answer 6

1) Neither Britain nor the other imperial powers immediately gave up on their empires after WW2.
2) The decolonisation of India and Burma and the withdrawal from Palestine were based on the belief that the benefits of holding onto said possessions were outweighed by the costs that their possession would incur.
3) Decisions to relinquish empire were often forced by specific developments rather than being the product of an immediate post-war shift in thinking.

Question 7

What was Britain’s approach to its African colonies after WW2?

Answer 7

1) No immediate desire to grant independence.
2) Wanted to develop them economically to benefit their post-war recovery.

Question 8

How did Andrew Cohen view the Gold Coast colony?

Answer 8

1) As the Head of the African Department of the Colonial Office, he viewed the Gold Coast as:
- the most advanced colony politically and in their fitness to rule themselves.
- thought that independence was likely.

Question 9

What did the British recognise about the Gold Coast after WW2?
What were British aims in the area?

Answer 9

1) Rise of African elite would mean allowing some degree of African political representation.
2) They would soon be able to rule themselves.
3) British aims were to slow down the process of decolonisation so it would be beneficial to Britain and not damage their prestige.

Question 10

What was the Burns Constitution of 1946? To what extent was it a breakthrough?

Answer 10

1) Established a legislative council of 12 British nominees and 18 elected African members.
2) It was a majority of elected Africans.
3) However, final power still remained in the hands of the British governor.

Question 11

How did nationalists put pressure on British administrators in the Gold Coast?

Answer 11

1) A wave of unrest spread across the country.
2) Convention People’s Party (CPP) was founded in 1949 and pressurised the British administration to make further concessions.
3) CPP led a campaign of non-copperation in Jan 1950 known as ‘positive action’.
4) Legislative council enlarged and was renamed the Legislative Assembly.

Question 12

Why was founded of the CPP Nkrumah given the position of PM of the Gold Coast in 1952?

Answer 12

1) CPP won 2/3rds of the seats in the Legislative Assembly in 1951.
2) Became clear that the CPP would have to be brought into government in order to bring the troubles under control.
3) Nkrumah was therefore released and given the position of PM.

Question 13

When was Ghana given independence?

Answer 13

1) March 6th 1957.

Question 14

Explain Nigerian strikes and nationalism after WW2.

Answer 14

1) In 1945- strike of railway and government workers.
2) National council of Nigeria and Cameroons was formed in 1944. Ultimate aim was self-governance for Nigeria.

Question 15

What was the Richards Constitution of 1946 in Nigeria?

Answer 15

1) New arrangements allowed for greater African representation.
2) Governor General and the Executive Council retained ultimate power.

Question 16

Why were regional assemblies in each of the 3 major regions created?

Answer 16

1) To debate local matters and to advise the British governors in these regions.
2) North region 90% muslim, west and east were largely christian

Question 17

What was the Macpherson Constitution 1951? How did it encourage the growth of nationalism? Which country?

Answer 17

1) Greater pressure of change from nationalist movements forced the British to amend the constitution in Nigeria
2) Extended the right to vote and created a National Council of Ministers.
3) Each region allowed its own government as well as an elected assembly.
4) There was a growth in political parties based around these regions who began to compete for elections to the new Federal House of Representatives, encouraging nationalism.

Question 18

What other reforms in Nigeria did Britain find themselves pushed into? How did these lead to granting independence in October 1960?

Answer 18

1) New political parties representing different ethnic groups and parties.
2) Britain found themselves being pushed for concessions more quickly than originally envsiaged.
3) Further revisions of the constitution and federal elections in 1954
4) More power increasingly devolved to the various governments. Moves were made towards the full independence of the country in October 1960.

Question 19

How did Britain decolonise in East Africa?

Answer 19

1) Progress towards independence was much more violent. Rapid economic growth brought urbanisation, greater political consciousness activism, nationalism and labour disputes.
2) Initially Britain saw this region as being ideal for economic development. Perhaps the greatest symbol of these aspirations was the Tanganyika Ground Nut Scheme of 1946. The failure of this provoked East African peasants into supporting nationalist movements.
3) Mau Mau uprising from 1952-56 exemplified desire for independence amongst the native population in Kenya.
4) Tanganyika granted independence in 1961, Uganda in 1962 and Kenya in December 1963.

Question 20

Explain what the Tanganyika Ground Nut scheme was.

Answer 20

1) Due to a lack of cooking fats, the idea of growing in Tanganyika large quantities of groundnuts which could processed into cooking oils and sold to the world economy.
2) The terrain proved too difficult to cultivate and the scheme was abandoned in 1951 having cost £49 million.

Question 21

How did Britain go about decolonisation in Southern and central Africa?

Answer 21

1) In Southern Africa, white minority had enjoyed full control of SA internal affairs thanks to the Statute of Westminster in 1931.
2) South African white population voted to become a Republic and leave the Commonwealth after not being handed remaining colonies in the region in 1961.
3) Britain had influence in Northern and Southern Rhodesia, Nyasaland. This led to the formation of the Central African Association in 1953. It included some protection of rights. Limited provision for African representation in the new Federal Assembly.
4) The Central African Association was formally dissolved in 1963 though.
5) Northern Rhodesia given independence in 1964 and Nyasaland as well.
6) Rhodesia became a republic in 1969.

Question 22

How did Britain go about decolonisation in Burma?

Answer 22

1) Burma gained independence shortly after the war, after violent activities of nationalists and the ascendancy of the AFPFL, led by Aung San.
2) Attlee wanted a programme of slow steps to independence. Talks took place between San and Britain in Jan 1947, and it was agreed that elections for a Constituent Assembly would take place in April 1947, producing a huge AFPFL majority.
3) Violent path eventually led to independence in Jan 1948.

Question 23

How did Britain go about independence in Singapore and Malaya.

Answer 23

1) Britain saw these colonies as crucially important to their post war economic and imperial strategies. Malaya as a producer of rubber, whilst Singapore was militarily and strategically important.

Question 24

Explain the Malay Peninsula.

Answer 24

1) British faced a number of serious problems when they tried to re-establish control of the Peninsula in 1945. The peninsula suffered from ethnic tensions involving Malay peoples and Chinese and Indian populations.
2) United Malays National Organisation was created in March 1946. The Chinese on the other hand were represented by the Malay Chinese Association or the Malay Communist Party. Chinese population was prominently represented in labour unions and involved in a series of strikes as well.
3) Due to tensions being so high by 1947, the British introduced a new scheme, offering a much more restricted definition of Malayan citizenship. New arrangements creating the Federation of Malaya were created in Jan 1948 and established:
- Federation of Malaya Executive Council with 7 official and 7 unofficial members, headed by the British High Commissioner.
- Federation of Malaya Legislative Council of 62 members.
- governments within the individual Malay states to which some of the financial powers of the central Colonial Administration were devolved.

Question 25

What was the impact of the new Federation of Malaya?

Answer 25

1) Beset with problems.
2) British were so frightened by the potentially damaging impact of rebel attacks on rubber plantations they declared a state of emergency in June 1948.
3) Troubles raged between 1948 and 1952 and saw the assassination of British High Commissioner Henry Gurney in Oct 1951.
4) By 1952, order had been restored.

Question 26

How did the British keep support during the state of emergency?
What was the Reid Commission?

Answer 26

1) They made promises of Malay independence.
2) Between 1952-54 the Malay and Chinese united against British rule and together won 81% of the votes in the federal elections of 1955. The British feared that if they denied independence for much longer, there would be a violent military rebellion.
3) Reid Commission led by William Reid was established in 1955 to draw up a new democratic constitution and in 1957, an independent Malaya was created

Question 27

Explain Singapore’s road to independence.

Answer 27

1) During 1947-48, it was given its own government with an Executive and Legislative council. However, although 6/25 seats on the legislative council were elected, only British subjects had the vote.
2) The gov of Singapore struggled to contain communist insurgency. An attempt was made to win the loyalty of the population by enlarging the Legislative Council to 32 seats with 25 of them being elected.
3) The 1st elected council had been dominated by the Singapore Progressive Party, but in 1955 several new left-wing parties emerged. This new left wing grouping sought discussions with the British about self rule.
4) 1959- Lee Kuan Yew of the People’s Action Party came to power and decided that Singapore’s future would be best assured as part of the Federation of Malaya, becoming known as Malaysia.
5) This scheme proved unworkable, and in August 1965 Singapore was expelled from Malaysia, and became a fully independent state in its own right.

Question 28

Explain the situation the British found themselves regarding the Kikuyu people of Kenya?

Answer 28

1) The Kikuyu suffered most acutely from shortage of land (seized by white settlers) and from unemployment and poor conditions in the towns.
2) Black Kenyan frustrations were fuelled by the British announcement that self-government would not be possible in the near future.
3) In 1952, there was an escalation of murders by the Mau Mau (some of white farmers, but even more of fellow Kikuyu who had refused to take the Mau Mau oath.
4) Reports that the Mau Mau were taking ritualistic oaths of allegiance , committing them to armed insurgency against the colonial occupiers fuelled a panic among the white settlers.

Question 29

What did Evelyn Baring do as a reaction to the Mau Mau killings in 1952?

Answer 29

1) Baring declared a state of emergency, which suspended all black African political rights and the Mau Mau were treated as political terrorists.
2) As a result, Black leaders such as Jomo Kenyetta were imprisoned for conspiring with the Mau Mau.
3) The British employed a huge repressive machine, using British troops, Kikuyu troops, planes and helicopters. The Mau Mau barely stood a chance, although they managed to hold out for 5 years.
4) British hanged suspects on the least excuse and interned thousands in ‘rehabilitation camps’ where they systematically interrogated and tortured the inmates to identify the Mau Mau sympathisers.

Question 30

How many people were killed as a result of the Mau Mau rebellion?

Answer 30

1) According to official estimates, between 1952-56, 11-12,000 people died and 81,000 detained. Yet, some historians argue that the figures are much higher.

Question 31

What highlighted the conditions in the rehabilitation camps British put suspects in?

Answer 31

1) The atrocities at the Hola Camp.
2) The camp held Mau Mau prisoners that would not relinquish their Mau Mau oath. The camp commandant forced 88 prisoners who refused to obey orders to perform manual labour or join rehabilitation schemes to undertake work. When they resisted, they were beaten by the guards.
3) 11 detainees died. The remaining 77 sustained serious injuries.
4) When the East African Standard reported the incident, it quoted an official report which suggested that 10 men had died from drinking contaminated water.
5) The truth emerged over the following weeks when an examining doctor had discovered that the 11 deaths had been caused by lung congestion and haemorrhage following multiple bruises and other injuries.

Question 32

What was the impact of the Mau Mau rebellion?

Answer 32

1) Macmillan’s ‘Winds of Change’ speech in 1960 and shift in policy towards African independence was undoubtedly linked to the Mau Mau insurrection.
2) The new Governor of Kenya, Patrick Renison, facilitated moves towards independence and black majority rule, which was achieved in 1963, where 1500 remaining Mau Mau guerillas laid down their arms .
3) The Mau Mau rebellion had shwon that colonial governments were poorly equipped to deal with large scale insurrection and caused deep apprehension.

Question 33

What were the 3 main nationalist independence parties that arose in Nigeria in the post war period?

Answer 33

1) National Council of Nigeria and Cameroons. Led by Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe. Had the widest appeal.
2) The Action Group. Sought autonomous states in a federal system.
3) The Northern People’s Congress.

Question 34

How were Britain able to slow down the path to Nigerian independence?

Answer 34

1) Drew up 3 constitutions from 1946-54 amidst considerable political controversy as ethnic divisions intensified.
2) The ethnic tensions helped them limit reforms to slow concessions.

Question 35

Why was the decision of the Rhodesian Front to declare a Unilateral Declaration of Emergency (UDI) in 1965 so damaging to Britain’s process of decolonisation?

Answer 35

1) Rejected as illegal and unconstitutional by Britain, the UN and most of the world.
2) Britain imposed sanctions but they proved of little use as SA refused to cooperate.
3) Revealed Britain’s embarrassing impotence.
4) Whilst claiming a world role, it proved unable to deal with rebels in its own ex colony.
5) Britain received criticism from the Commonwealth, accusing Britain of betraying commonwealth ideals.
6) Triggered a 15 year long civil war between white and black nationalist peoples in Rhodesia.

Question 36

In what ways was Britain scared by the developments of nationalist movements in the CAF?

Answer 36

1) Created the CAF in 1953 to try and forestall a potential situation of Southern Rhodesia politicians extending their influence over the mineral rich northern Rhodesia.
2) White people tried to use the federation to reinforce their own political leadership and to give the white northern Rhodesians the same political influence.
3) In 1959, Dr Hastings Banda of Nyasaland led a campaign to end the federation. Led to a state of emergency and the imprisonment of Banda and other leaders.
4). British commission in 1959 concluded that the emergency had been an overreaction.
5) Macmillan and Macleod had little choice but to break up the federation.