Chapter 2

Question 1

What is science motivated by?

Answer 1

a natural curiosity about the world

Question 2

What are the first three steps in the process of conducting research?

Answer 2

1. generating an idea
2. finding relevant research
3. shaping your question into a testable hypothesis

Question 3

What are 5 broad sources of ideas for research?

Answer 3

1. common assumptions
2. observations of the world
3. practical problems
4. scientific theories
5. past research

Question 4

What are examples of something researchers may test related to common assumptions?

Answer 4

whether the common sense or folk wisdom help within a culture are actually true. (do opposites attract? do birds of a feather flock together?)

Question 5

What questions might lead to research on interpersonal relationships interpersonal relationships, child development, and the role of visual images in learning and memory?

Answer 5

• do friends or parents have the greatest influence on how a child will end up?
• is a picture worth a thousand words?

Question 6

Why can testing widely held assumptions be valuable?

Answer 6

because these notions don’t always turn out to be correct and research might also show that the real world is much more complicated than our assumptions would have us believe.

often forces us to go beyond a common sense theory of behaviour and examine more closely what actually occurs in the real world.

Question 7

Does research support that opposites attract is true? Is there any research that contradicts the findings of most research? If so what is different?

Answer 7

decades of research has shown that people actually tend to be attracted to others who are similar to themselves.

A group of researchers led by Steven Heine wondered if these findings would replicate in non-Western cultures. They found that Japanese participants idd not show the same preference for people similar to them over those who are different.

Question 8

What can lead us to make intuitions about the world?

Answer 8

simply making careful observations of what happens around us.

Question 9

What do we do in science instead of accepting intuitions based off of observation?

Answer 9

we take on a scientifically skeptical mindset, pushing those intuitions to fuel research ideas.

Question 10

how did noting the experience of projects taking longer than the time set aside to complete them lead to research? What did the research show? What is the suggestion resulting from this research?

Answer 10

Roger Buhler and Wilfred Laurier conducted a series of experiments on why and how people underestimate the time it takes to complete tasks.

Their studies showed that people are particularly likely to underestimate how long a project takes when it involves many steps (and therefore can be interrupted easily), rather than when the task can be completed in one sitting.

Studying for exams and writing papers are good examples of these multistep tasks

adding a few extra hours or days to your first estimate might help you correct for this bias. (applied research?)

Question 11

What is an example of how part-time jobs or volunteer positions can provide a rich source of material for scientific investigation? What did he find? What does this example show us?

Answer 11

When psychologist michael Lynn was a University student, he was working as a server and relied on tips for income. he decided to study tipping behaviour in restaurants and hotels in different countries

he found that posture, touching, and phrases written on a cheque increase tips. his research had a major impact on the restaurant and hotel industry.

shows us that taking a scientific approach to an everyday problem can lead to new discoveries with useful applications.

Question 12

What is Ivan Pavlov most known for? Did he set out to discover this? What does this show about accidental approaches?

Answer 12

discovering what is called “classical conditioning”

he did not set out to discover this. he was actually studying the digestive system in dogs. One of his students noticed that the dogs had been salivating before the actual feeding began which led pavlov to study the ways in which stimulus preceeding food could produce a salivation response.

This shows accidental approaches aren’t purely accidental and they are far more likely to happen when approaching the world with a curious and inquisitive eye.

Question 13

How does classical conditioning work?

Answer 13

pairing a neutral stimulus (such as a tone) repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus (such as food) to produce a reflex response (salvation) so that eventually the neutral stimulus presented alone will produce the response.

Question 14

Is drawing inspiration from real problems in the world limited to applied researchers? Example?

Answer 14

Those who tend to conduct basic research may also draw inspiration from societal problems.

Basic research on memory was inspired by observation on the memory difficulties faced by people who had experienced some form of brain injury, such as a stroke.

Most famously, the research on HM who had brain surgery to relieve epilepsy memory difficulties led to great advances in our understanding of the basic memory process

Question 15

What is an example of applied research in public health policy?

Answer 15

including graphic warnings on cigarette packages to reduce smoking.

Question 16

What is a theory?

Answer 16

a framework that organizes and explains various findings related to a particular phenomenon, and in doing so generates new, testable hypotheses about that phenomenon

Question 17

What scientific word is most similar to the colloquial use of theory?

Answer 17

hypothesis

Question 18

What is a scientific theory grounded in and helps tp explain?

Answer 18

actual data from prior research

Question 19

in explaining past observations what do theories also do?

Answer 19

specify predictions about possible future observations , known as hypotheses

Question 20

What can specific hypotheses help us evaluate?

Answer 20

whether the broader theory is likely to be true

Question 21

What 2 important functions do theories provide?

Answer 21

1. organize and explain a large number of previous observations
2. Generate new knowledge by pointing us in a direction where we can look to discover new aspects of behaviour.

Question 22

How do theories make the world more comprehensible?

Answer 22

by providing just a few abstract concepts around which many different observations can be organized.

Question 23

What is an example of a famous theory that helped us organize lots of information?

Answer 23

Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection organized and explained a large number of observations concerning the characteristics of animal species. This one theory helped to explain the appearance of so many different animals

Question 24

What is one theory of memory that helps us organize many different observations about memory, including the different types of memory deficits that result from damage to different areas of the brain, and the rate at which a person forgets material they just read?

Answer 24

a theory of memory that asserts that there are separate systems for working with information in the moment (working memory) and storing information for later (long term memory)

Question 25

How are theories supported? Which of the 2 characteristics of theories does this fall into?

Answer 25

theories help us generate new hypotheses about behaviour which are then evaluated in future studies. if the studies support the hypothesis, then by extension, the theory is supported. generating new knowledge

Question 26

What happens if research reveals weaknesses in a theory?

Answer 26

the theory can be modified to account for new data or a researcher may develop an entirely new theory that a past study or past studies couldn't explain

Question 27

What is the memory theory example of how theories need to be modified as new information is discovered?

Answer 27

originally, a theory on memory thought that the long term memory system was a storehouse of permanent , fixed memories but research now shows that memories are easily reconstructed and reinterpreted

Question 28

What is parsimony? Why?

Answer 28

the scientific principle stating that if 2 theories are equally effective at explaining a phenomenon, the simpler of the 2 theories is preferred We follow this principle because the least complex theory will be easier to falsify (fewer variables = easier to prove the whole theory wrong)

Question 29

Is past research a good source of ideas? Why? What are some examples of what kind of questions may come up?

Answer 29

yes. becoming familiar on a body of research already published on a topic is perhaps the best way to generate new ideas for research. Virtually every study raises question that can be addressed in subsequent research. do the findings replicate in a different setting, a different population, a different culture?

Question 30

What is facilitated communication?

Answer 30

a technic that purportedly allows a child to communicate with others by pressing keys on a key board, to show letters and other symbols. a facilitator hold the child's hand to enable the child to determine which key to press. This technique seemingly allowed children with ASD to communicate their thoughts and feelings and answer questions

Question 31

What did researchers (applying scientific skepticism) find out about the original study design of facilitated communication?

Answer 31

noted that the original study design failed to rule out a crucial alternative explanation: the facilitator may be unintentionally guiding the child's fingers to type meaningful sentences. in other words, the facilitator, not the child with autism was controlling the communication.

Question 32

How did the researchers create a study to test the findings of facilitated communication? What were the findings?

Answer 32

three conditions: Condition 1: facilitator and autistic child are both shown pictures and child is asked to indicate what is shown in the picture with the facilitators Condition 2: only the child saw the pictures Condition 3: the child and facilitator were shown different pictures when the child and facilitator were shown different pictures, the child never made the correct response. Usually, the one the facilitator saw was the one that was indicated

Question 33

If you have observed something in the world around you and you want to research it further, What comes next?

Answer 33

you need to find out what past research has already been done on that topic. You might find a large body of research, including well developed theories and this might lead you to revise your original question and ask something new. Or you might find that very little is known about the phenomenon which might drive your curiosity.

Question 34

across all sciences, what are the 6 major sections in research articles that report the results of one study?

Answer 34

1. an abstract that summarizes the entire report 2. and introduction that explains the problem under investigation and any specific hypotheses being tested 3. a method section that describes in detail the exact procedures used 4. a results section that presents the findings 5. a discussion section that might include speculation on the broader implications of the results, address potential alternative explanations, discuss reasons why a particular hypothesis might not have been supported by the data, and make suggestions for future research. 6. the references section that lists all the sources that were cited in the article

Question 35

In psychology, what format do all of the references and citations follow? What else follows this format? Why do we do this?

Answer 35

the rules found in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association This manual also tells us the rules for formatting tables, and how to present statistics psychologists use these rules to help communicate with each other efficiently. All scientists know where to find specific information

Question 36

Break down the 6 major sections of research articles

Answer 36

1. Abstract: brief summary of article 2. Introduction: outline the problem, tie to past research, point to question and method. (tends to start broadly with a statement of the topic and narrow towards the study method. 3. Methodology: detailed description of study design 4. Results: Objective report of study results 5. Discussion: Interpretation of study results (tends to recap results and then provide more general information) 6. References: List of all works cited

Question 37

What is the abstract? What is its format? What is the reason for abstracts?

Answer 37

the abstract is a summary of the research report that is found at the beginning - typically runs no more than 120 words in length (although the word limit can vary by journal) - Includes information about the hypothesis, the procedure, and the broad pattern of results. - generally, little information is abstracted from the discussion section of the paper. - help readers quickly get a sense of a paper to decide if its relevant to their interests and something that they may wish to read about in more detail.

Question 38

Why do we read the abstract? What are some issues with relying too heavily on the abstract for information?

Answer 38

read the abstract to decide whether the article could help you learn about your research topic. relying too heavily on the abstract can lead to you making a mistaken impression of the study.

Question 39

What is the introduction? What is its format?

Answer 39

in the intro, the research outlines the problem that has been investigated. - the investigator introduces the research project by building a logical case that justifies why this study and the expected results will make an important contribution to understanding behaviour. - past research and theories relevant to the problem are described , a gap in the existing knowledge is identified, and the current study is introduced as an attempt to fill this gap in knowledge. - the researcher will often end this section by stating the hypothesis, or by declaring the study to be exploratory yet guided by particular research questions.

Question 40

Why do we read the introduction of a research paper?

Answer 40

to find the purpose of the study, the pat research and theories relevant to the study, and the hypothesis.

Question 41

What is the method section? What is the format?

Answer 41

- provides info about exactly how the study was conducted, including details necessary for the reader to replicate (repeat) the study. - often divided into sub sections (the number of subsections is determined by the author and dependent on the complexity of the study. - one subsection always describes the characteristics of the participants who contributed to the data. (these individuals may be referred to as subjects or respondents when surveys are employed and sometimes as informants when people report on other people) - another subsection typically details the procedure used in the study, including the stimulus materials presented and the measures employed. (it is important that no potentially crucial detail be omitted while describing stimulus materials), the way behaviour was recorded, and so on.

Question 42

Why is it important to provide details about who contributed the data in the methods section?

Answer 42

so we can place the results in context and consider to what similar populations these results may generalize.

Question 43

What are some characteristics we might provide about the participants in the methods section?

Answer 43

how many participants identified themselves as male, female, or transgender, or non-binary what was the average age? How many participants were included total? If the study used human participants, how were they recruited for the study? was the data from any participants excluded from the analysis, and if so why? If the sutdy used non-human participants, what species and genetic strain was used?

Question 44

Why is it important not to omit any stimulus details in the research methods section?

Answer 44

omitting important details prevents readers from properly evaluating the study

Question 45

Why do we read the methods section of a research paper?

Answer 45

to find out characteristics of the participants, what they were asked to do, what materials were used, and the overall study design

Question 46

What is the results section? What is the format?

Answer 46

- the researcher presents the findings (typically arisen from a statistical analysis of the data collected). The presentation of these results takes various forms. Findings can be described in: - a narrative form (the result is described in words) Ex: "the names of the animals that were also rated as cuter were more likely to be remembered one week after they were learned) - researchers often try to avoid presenting too much interpretation of the results at this point - research findings are also described in the form of statistics, which reflect the analyses that were conducted to test the hypothesis. The statistics can also be in tables and/or presented in the forms of graphs or figures.

Question 47

Why do we read the results section of research reports?

Answer 47

for sentences, statistics, tables, and graphs that summarize the pattern of findings.

Question 48

What is the discussion? How is it formatted?

Answer 48

the researcher views the current study from variosu perspectives. - do the results support all the hypotheses? Some of them? Or none of them? the other should try to discuss possible explanations for the results and discuss why one explanation might be more likely than others . if the hypotheses were not supported, or have recieved only partial support, the author should suggest potential reasons (what might have been wrong with the methodology, the hypotheses or both?) - the researcher also discusses how the results compare with past research - frequently includes suggestions for future research on the topic and possibly practical applications

Question 49

Is it bad to admit that you realized a flaw in your study after the data has been collected and analyzed in your discussion section?

Answer 49

no. no study is perfect and it is important to be upfront about the weaknesses and limitations of your study

Question 50

Why do we read the discussion section?

Answer 50

for conclusions about the hypothesis, the study's strengths and limitations, and contributions it makes to understanding the topic.

Question 51

What is the purpose of citations in academic writing?

Answer 51

signal to readers that the idea or result described in that sentence was stated or found by the people cited and not the current author.

Question 52

Do psychologists use direct quotations?

Answer 52

writers in psychology and other sentences tend to paraphrase others' work instead of quoting.

Question 53

Why do we read the references section in research papers?

Answer 53

to look up citations you noticed in earlier sections. Use this information to find research results that will help you learn more about what is known about your tpoic.

Question 54

What does a standard reference include?

Answer 54

authors. (publication year). Title. Journal Name, journal volume, pages. doi.

Question 55

What articles might not closely follow the 6 section format?

Answer 55

articles that review and summarize research in a particular area. (probably a literature review or a meta analysis)

Question 56

What is a literature review?

Answer 56

A narrative summary of the past research conducted on a particular topic.

Question 57

What is the difference between a metanalysis and a literature review?

Answer 57

metanalysis will use statistical techniques to re-analyze past data. Lit review will use narrative techniques to summarize the research in words.

Question 58

What will review articles definitley have? What may vary?

Answer 58

defintiley: abstract, intro, discussion, and references may not: sections between intro and discussion

Question 59

What is manuscript form?

Answer 59

formatted in the way a psychologist would submit it for potential publication.

Question 60

How might you read an article if you are searching for ways others have studied creativity in the past?

Answer 60

- may skip straight to methods - then go back and read the article carefully - then note the hypotheses and theories presneted in the introduction - then write down anything that seems crucial or problematic in the method, - and read the results in view of the material in the intro

Question 61

What are scholarly journals?

Answer 61

special publications that include articles written by scientists that are intended for scientists.

Question 62

Are all peer-reviewed journals scholarly publications?

Answer 62

yes

Question 63

Are all scholarly publications peer-reviewed?

Answer 63

no

Question 64

When are research reports considered primary sources in our discipline?

Answer 64

once it is accepted for publication by a journal.

Question 65

What are library databases considered useful for?

Answer 65

- finding specific articles - setting advanced search parameters - reliable cited references searches - complete, searchable bibliographic details - trusting that the database is monitored for accuracy - accessing many full texts when connected to campus library - learning disciplinary jargon by using thesaurus- suggested terms as keyword lists from useful articles.

Question 66

What is an internet search considered useful for?

Answer 66

-exploring a topic very broadly, including blog posts etc - finding researchers' websites for their full publication records and original articles

Question 67

What are cons of internet searches?

Answer 67

- can't set advanced search limits - can be difficult to find peer reviewed articles - not monitored for accuracy

Question 68

What is the name of the american psychological association's searchable database system? is it considered the best source?

Answer 68

PsycINFO yes.

Question 69

How can you find all the articles that have used a particular measure?

Answer 69

a cited reference search on Web of science

Question 70

What is a research hypothesis?

Answer 70

a statement about a phenomenon that may or may not be true, informed by past research or derived from. broader theory and which requires further evidence to support or refute it

Question 71

When might a researcher chose to conduct exploratory research?

Answer 71

if little or no researhc has been conducted previously on the topic and there is not enough existing evidence to formulate a strong hypothesis.

Question 72

What do researchers do to their hypothesis when designing a study?

Answer 72

the researcher translates the more general hypothesis into a very specific prediction concerning the outcome of this particular study.

Question 73

What are predictions tied to?

Answer 73

the methods of a particular study. Make the statements from the hypothesis more concrete and specific to the study itself.

Question 74

How are predictions often stated? Why?

Answer 74

in the future tense because they appear in the introduction section and refer to the study that is about to be described.

Question 75

Which of the following examples is a prediction and which is a hypothesis? 1. a crowded environment results in worse performance on cognitive tasks compared to an uncroweded environment 2. participants in the uncrowded condition will perform better on delayed recall tasks than participants in the crowded condition.

Answer 75

1 = hyp 2= pred

Question 76

What is an important characteristic of hypotheses? What does this mean?

Answer 76

falsifiability. means data could show that the hypothesis is false if it is in fact false.

Question 77

LOOK AT CHAPTER 2 PAGE 33

Question 78

GO BACK TO SECTION ABOUT SPECIFIC WEBSITES AND DO A BETTER JOB AT MAKING CUE CARDS FOR THEM