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ANTH 1101 > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Variant

A

The particular form of a trait

Ex. Brown eyes, blue eyes

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2
Q

Cross

A

Matings

In genetics, a mating between chosen parents

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3
Q

F0 Generation

A

The initial generation

The original founding population

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4
Q

F1 Generation

A

The offspring of the F0 generation

Note this will continue to F2, F3, etc .

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5
Q

F2 Generation

A

The offspring of the f1 generation

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6
Q

Genes

A

Two particle. One inherited from the mother and one from the father.

A segment of the chromosomes that produces a recognizable effect on phenotype and segregates as a unit during gamete formation

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7
Q

Gametes

A

In animals
An egg or sperm

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8
Q

Gametes

A

In animals
An egg or sperm

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9
Q

Independent assortment

A

Principle discovered by Mendel

That each of the genes at a single locus on a pair of homologous chromosomes is equally likely to be transmitted when gametes (eggs and sperms) are formed

Happens during Meiosis

The probability that a particular chromosome will enter a gamete is 0.50 and is independent of whether other non homologous chromosomes enter the same gamete.

Thus knowing that an individual received a particular chromosome from its mother (and thus a particular allele) tells nothing about the probability that it received other, non homologous chromosomes from its mother.

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10
Q

Chromosome

A

A linear body in the cell nucleus’s that carries genes and appears during cell divison

Contained in every cell and replicated during cell division - a special kind of cell division that creates gametes.

Staining cells with dyes reveals different chromosomes are marked with different banding patterns

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11
Q

Chromosome

A

A linear body in the cell nucleus’s that carries genes and appears during cell divison

Contained in every cell and replicated during cell division - a special kind of cell division that creates gametes.

Staining cells with dyes reveals different chromosomes are marked with different banding patterns

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12
Q

Nucleus

A

The distinct part of the cell that contains the chromosomes

Eurokryotes (fungi, protozoans, plants, and animals) all have nucleated cells: prokaryotes (bacteria) do not

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13
Q

Nucleus

A

The distinct part of the cell that contains the chromosomes

When a cell divides, the nuclei divides too

Eurokryotes (fungi, protozoans, plants, and animals) all have nucleated cells: prokaryotes (bacteria) do not

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14
Q

Eukaryotes

A

fungi, protozoans, plants, and animals

all have nucleated cells

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15
Q

prokaryotes

A

Bacteria

Do not have nucleus

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16
Q

prokaryotes

A

Bacteria

Do not have nucleus

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17
Q

Mitosis

A

The process of cell division of somatic cells (normal cells.) through which new diploid cells are created

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18
Q

Somatic cells

A

Normal body cells

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19
Q

Diploid

A

Of a cell

Containing pairs of homologous chromosomes of each pair is inherited from each parent

Also refers to organisms who’s somatic (body) cells are diploid

All primates and humans are diploid

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20
Q

Diploid

A

Of a cell

Containing pairs of homologous chromosomes of each pair is inherited from each parent

Also refers to organisms who’s somatic (body) cells are diploid

All primates and humans are diploid

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21
Q

Homologous chromosomes

A

Pairs Inside chromosomes
Pairs who’s members have similar shapes and staining patterns

Sets of chromosomes that have the same genetic loci but often contain different alleles.

Human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes - one of each pair comes from the mother and the other from the father

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22
Q

Meiosis

A

Sex cell creation

The process of cell division in which haploid gametes (eggs and sperm) are created.

Each gamete contains only one copy of each chromosome (compared to mitosis where they contains a homologous pair of chromosomes) = haploid

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23
Q

Haploid

A

Of a cell

Containing only one copy of each chromosomes

Gametes are haploid , so are the cells of some asexual organisms

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24
Q

Zygote

A

The cell formed by the union of an egg and a sperm

When one haploid sperm and one haploid egg to produce a diploid zygote

It is a single cell that then divides mitotically over and over to produce the millions of cells that make up an individuals body.

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25
Alleles
One or two or more alternative forms of genes Varieties of a single genes Individuals with Two copies of the same allele are homozygous. Individuals with the same alleles are heterozygous
26
Homozygous
Individuals that have a chromosome that carry two copies of the same allele at a single genetic locus Diploid organism Organisms who’s somatic are homozygous are also called homozygotes AA or aa
27
Heterozygous
Of a diploid organism Organisms that carry copies of two different alleles for a particular genetic locus Organisms are called heterozygotes ( Aa )
28
Genotype
Refers to a particular combination of genes or alleles that an individual carries. The combination of alleles that characterizes an individual at some set of genetics loci Ex.populations with only the A and S alleles at the hemoglobin Locust, that locus has only three possible genotypes : AA, AS/SA, SS Genotype is the AA , Aa, or aa of an organism and phenotype is the Yellow or Green peas
29
Phenotype
Refers to the observable character of the organism Indidivudals with the same phenotype may have different genotypes Ex. Colour of the peas in Mendez’s experiment Genotype is the AA , Aa, or aa of an organism and phenotype is the Yellow or Green peas
30
Dominant
Of an allele Used to describe the A allele because individuals with only one cope of the A allele have the same phenotype Results in the same phenotype whether in the homozygous or the heterozygous state
31
Recessive
Use to describe the a allele Expressed in the phenotype only when it is in the homozygous state (aa) Has no affect on phenotype in heterozygous ( Aa )
32
Punnet Square
A diagram that uses genes (or alleles) frequencies to calculate the genotype frequencies for the next generation
33
Recombination
The creation on grew genotypes as a result of the random segregation of chromosomes and of crossing over The process is very important for maintaining variation in natural population Demonstrates that sexual reproduction shuffle genes that affect shuffle genes that affect different traits , thereby producing new combinations of traits Ex. Crossing plants with smooth yellow send and plants with green wrinkled seeds. All the F1 generation were smooth and yellow, F2 generation were 9 smooth yellow, 3 smooth green, 3 wrinkled yellow, 1 wrinkled green
34
Locus
The position that a particular gene occupies on a chromosome A gene for a particular trait occur at a particular site on a particular chromosome. They are arranged on the chromosome in a line. (Like beads on a string)
35
Genome
All the genetic information carried by an organism All the genes carried on the chromosomes
36
Linked
Of genes Being located on the same chromosome The closer together the two loci are the more likely they are to be linked When loci for different traits occur close to each other on the same chromosome
37
Unlinked
Of genes Located on different chromosomes When loci are on different chromosomes
38
Crossing over
The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosome s during meiosis Causes recombination of genes carried on the same chromosome Chromosomes frequently tangle and break as they are replicated during meiosis. Chromosomes are not always preserved intact and genes on one chromosome are sometimes shifted from one member of a homologous pair to another. If two loci are located close together on a chromosome, crossing over will be rare and the rate of recombination will be low. If two loci are located far apart then crossing over will be common and the rate of recombination will approach the rate for genes in different chromosomes.
39
Deoxyribonucleic acid
Aka DNA The molecule that carries hereditary info in almost all living organisms DNA consists of two very long sugar phosphate backbones called strands to which the bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine are bound. Hydrogen binds between the bases bind the two strands. Chromosomes contain two structurally complex molecules: protein and deoxyribonucleic acid
40
Basis
One of four molecules - adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine that are bound to the DNA backbone. The DNA Backbone is alternating sequences of sugar and phosphate molecules - one of these four molecules attach to each sugar. Different sequences of basis encode the info necessary for protein synthesis
41
DNA backbone
The DNA Backbone is alternating sequences of sugar and phosphate molecules - one of these four molecules attach to each sugar.
42
Adenine
One of the blur basis on the DNA molecule The complementary base of adenine is thymine.
43
Guanine
One of the fourbases on the DNA molecule Complementary base of guanine is cytosine
44
Cytosine
One of the four bases of the dna molecule Complementary base of cytosine is guanine
45
Thymine
One of the four bases of the dna molecule Complementary base is adenine
46
Which of the four bases of the dna molecule bind with each other
Thymine only bonds with Adenine Guanine only bonds with cytosine
47
Protein coding genes
A gene that encodes instruction for making proteins One of the three most important ways that DNA affects phenotypes
48
Enzymes
A protein that serves as a catalyst increasing the rate at hwich a larticular chemical reactions occur at a given temperature Enzymes can control the chemical composition of cells by causing some chemical reactions to occur much faster than others.
49
Regulator gene
A dna sequence that regulates the expression of a structural gene often by binding to an activator or repressor Determines conditions under which the message in encoded in a protein coding gene will be expressed. Play a crutial role in shaping the differentiation of cells during development One of the three most important ways that DNA affects phenotypes
50
Biochemical pathway
Any of the chains of chemical reactions by which organisms regulate their structure and chemistry Complex Real organisms take in many compounds and each compound is involved in a complicated tangle of branches called pathways. Ex. One set of enzymes cause glucose through a pathway that yield energy, and a different set of enzymes cause the glucose to go down a pathway that store energy.
51
Proteins
Large mkecutes consisting of a long chain of amino acids Many proteins are enzyme catalysts : others perform structural functions
52
Amino acids
A molecule that is linked in a chain to form a protein 20 different amino acid molecules - all which share the same molecular backbone but have a different side chain
53
Primary Structure
The sequence of amino acids that make up a protein Sequence of amino acid side chains. It’s what makes one protein different from others. Ex. Think of a protein as a long railroad train, where there are. 20 different kinds of cars, each representing a different amino acid - the primary structure is a list of the type of cars in the order that they occur .
54
Tertiary structure
The 3D folded shape on a protein Crucial to the catalytic function The way a protein folds depends on the sequence of amino acid molecules that make up its primary sequence so the function of an enzyme depends on the sequence of the amino acids that make up an enzyme depends
55
Hemoglobin
A protein in blood that carries oxygen including two a (alpha) and two B (beta) subunits. Transport oxygens from the lungs to the tissues via bed blood cells. The proteins folds into a roughly spheric glob and the oxygen is bound to the protein near the Center of the globe.
56
Sickly cell anemia
A severe form of anemia tha5 afflicts people who are homozygous for the sickle cell gene
57
Codons
A sequence of three dna basis on a dna molecule that consists of one “word” in the message used to create a specific protein Each “word” specifies a particular amino acid There are 64 codons ( meaning 64 possible 3 letter combinations ) - 4 possibility’s for the first letter, 4 for the second letter, 4 for the third letter. (Note this is between DNA encodes messages using a 4 letter alphabet)
58
Ribonucleic acid
RNA A long molecule that plays several informant roles in protein synthesis Differs from DNA in that is has a slightly different chemical backbone and it contains the base uracil instead of thymine
59
Uracil
One of the four basis on the RNA molecule Replaces thymine in DNA . Complementary to adenine
60
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
A from of rna that carries specifications for protein synthesis from DNA to the ribosome Aid in protein synthesis
61
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
A form of RNA that facilitates protein synthesis by first binding to amino acids in the cytoplasm and then binding to the appropriate site on the messenger RNA There is at least one distinct form of tRNA for each amino acids Amino acid molecules are bound to tRNA
62
Anticodon
The sequence of bases on a transfer RNA molecule that binds complementary to a particular mRNA codon. Ex. MRNA codon AUC corresponds to the anticodon UAG because A binds to U, U binds to A, and C binds to G.
63
Ribosome
A small organelle composed of protein and nucleic acid that temporarily holds together the mRNA and the tRNA during protein synthesis mRNA fist binds to the ribosome at a binding site then moves the binding site on codon at a time. Each codon on mRNA enters the binding site, a tRNA with a complimentary anticodon is drawn from the complex soup of chemicals inside the cell and bound to the mRNA. the amino acids bound to the other end of the tRNA is then detached from the tRNA and added to one end of the growing protein chain. The process repeats for each mRNA until the end of the mRNA Molecule passes through the ribosome and a new protein is ready for action.
64
How does a new protein created with mRNA and tRNA in protein synthesis?
mRNA fist binds to the ribosome at a binding site then moves the binding site on codon at a time. Each codon on mRNA enters the binding site, a tRNA with a complimentary anticodon is drawn from the complex soup of chemicals inside the cell and bound to the mRNA. the amino acids bound to the other end of the tRNA is then detached from the tRNA and added to one end of the growing protein chain. The process repeats for each mRNA until the end of the mRNA Molecule passes through the ribosome and a new protein is ready for action.
65
Organelles
A portion of a cell that is enclosed in a membrane and has a specific function Ex. Mitochondria and the nucleus
66
Prokaryotes
An organism that lack cell nuclei or chromosomes Ex. Bacteria
67
Eukaryotes
An organism whose cells have a cell nucleus and chromosomes Ex. Plants, birds, humans / Animals
68
Introns
A segment of dna in eukaryotes that is not translated into protein Non coding sequences
69
Exon
A segment of the DNA in eukaryotes that is translated into proteins
70
Repressor
A protein that decreases transcription of a regulated gene Ex. When there is no lactose in the environment a repressor protein binds to one of the two regulatory sequences and interferes with RNA polymerase , an enzyme necessary for transcription , thereby preventing the protein coding genes from beings transcribed
71
Activator
A protein that increases transcript of a regulated gene
72
Combinatorial control
The control of gene expression in which more than one regulatory protein is used and expression is allowed only in specific combination of conditions The existence of multiple regulatory sequences allows for this More complex in eukaryotes
73
Spliceosomes
An organelle that splice the mRNA in eukaryotes after the introns have been snipped out
74
Noncoding RNA (ncRNA)
Molecules of RNA that do not code for proteins, including transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, and microRNAs
75
MicroRNA (miRNA)
Short segments of RNA that are involved in the translation of mRNA into protein and gene expression Some are involved in regulating development and cell differentiation in complex organisms A form of ncRNA
76
Long coding RNAS (lncRNA)
RNA molecules linger that 200 neucleotides IncRNA has many functions including gene regulation Have a wide variety of functions Important in regulating the expression of genes during development

ANTH 1101 (2 decks)

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