Chapter 2 Flashcards
(130 cards)
1
Q
In its most general psychological sense. It refers to certain changes that occur in human beings (or animals) between conception and death
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Development
2
Q
Changes in the body
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Physical development
3
Q
Changes in thinking, reasoning, and decision-making
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Social Development
4
Q
changes that occur naturally and spontaneously and to a large extent, genetically programmed
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Maturation
5
Q
things you’re born with, like your genes, biology, and natural growth
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Nature
6
Q
the environment you grow up in, like your family, culture, education, and surrounding
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Nurture
7
Q
cover on the axon accelerates transmission of impulses
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Myelin
8
Q
receive messages from other neurons
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Dendrites
9
Q
children this age have many more synapses than they will have as adult
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Age 2 to 3
10
Q
necessary and supports cognitive development. Researchers have found that some developmental disabilities are associated with a gene defect that interferes with this
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pruning
11
Q
Two kinds of overproduction and pruning processes take place:
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Experience expectant
Experience dependent
12
Q
because synapses are overproduced in certain parts of the brain during specific developmental periods,
awaiting (expecting) stimulation.
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Experience-expectant
13
Q
Here, synaptic connections are formed based on the individual’s experiences. New synapses are formed in response to neural activity in very localized areas of the brain.
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Experience-dependent
14
Q
accounts for about 85% of the brain’s weight in adulthood and contains the greatest number of neurons.
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Cerebral cortex
15
Q
allows the greatest human accomplishments, such as complex problem solving and language
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Cerebral cortex
16
Q
Controls higher-order thinking process.
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Frontal lobe
17
Q
major factor in language processing
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Left hemisphere
18
Q
handles much of our spatial-visual information and emotions (nonverbal information)
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Right hemisphere
19
Q
Here, the brain continues to develop, enhancing abilities to control behavior, organize, and manage impulsivity,
especially in low-stress situations.
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During adolescence
20
Q
Full brain maturity isn’t reached until?
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Early 20’s
21
Q
the brain continues to develop, during this period, enhancing abilities to control behavior, organize, and manage impulsivity, especially in low-stress situations.
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Adolescents
22
Q
which governs judgment and decision-making?
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Prefrontal cortex
23
Q
actively constructing understandings and actions.
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Knowing
24
Q
is based in our activities, and the brain is constantly changing
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Knowledge
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involves changes in neurons, synapses, and brain activity. Different activities, such as play, learning, and practice, can physically alter the brain.
Brain plasticity
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also influence brain activity, as shown in studies where Chinese and English speakers activated different brain regions when solving mathematical problems or reading
Cultural differences
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has often been misapplied, leading to unfounded
educational programs.
Mozart effect
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criticizes the brain-based education movement for turning solid science into unfounded speculation.
John Bruer
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John Bruer criticizes the brain-based education movement for turning solid science into unfounded speculation. For instance, the popular notion of right-brain versus left-brain learning is largely debunked but continues to influence educational practices.
Against Brain-Based Education
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Many scientists and educators argue that the application of neuroscience in education has been misused and over-simplified
Against Brain-Based Education
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Research on the brain, such as the "Mozart effect," has often been misapplied, leading to unfounded educational programs. Misunderstandings arise because neuroscientists and educators often have different interpretations of "learning" and lack a shared understanding of each other's fields.
Against Brain-Based Education
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proponents argue that brain research, if applied correctly, can enhance educational practices. Understanding how the brain works can challenge common assumptions about teaching and learning and suggest new approaches.
Support Brain-Based Education
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Advances in neuroscience have led to improved understandings of learning disabilities, such as reading disabilities, and have been used to develop educational tools like FastForword, a program that applies neural plasticity to improve reading skills
Support Brain-Based Education
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can significantly influence brain development, as demonstrated in several studies. For instance, intensive rehabilitation for stroke victims helps them regain function by forming new brain connections.
Instruction
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activate different brain areas compared to simply memorizing answers.
Learning strategies
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struggle to form strong mental representations of new words, often failing to recognize them later, which impedes comprehension.
Less skilled readers
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Less-skilled readers struggle to form strong mental representations of new words, often failing to recognize them later, which impedes comprehension. A study by Shaywitz et al. (2004) showed that poor readers underuse the?
Left hemisphere of their brain and overuse the right hemisphere
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After this instructions the brain activity resembled that of good readers.
Intensive reading instruction
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intelligence, communication, problem solving, and so on—emerge from each person’s unique synaptic activity overlaid on his or her genetically endowed brain anatomy; nature and nurture are in constant activity together
Human capabilities
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Human capabilities—intelligence, communication, problem solving, and so on—emerge from each person’s?
Synaptic activity
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Human capabilities—intelligence, communication, problem solving, and so on—emerge from each person’s unique synaptic activity overlaid on his or her genetically endowed brain anatomy; THIS are in constant activity together
nature and nurture
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Many cognitive functions are________________; they are associated with different parts of the brain
differentiated
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is relatively plastic, so enriched, active environments and flexible instructional strategies are likely to support cognitive development in young children and learning in adults.
Brain
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The brain is relatively plastic, so enriched, active environments and flexible instructional strategies are likely to support cognitive development in?
Young children and learning in adults
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seeks meaningful patterns and connections with existing networks, so teachers should tie new information to what students already understand and help them form new connections
Brain
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to build and consolidate knowledge it takes?
A long time
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This should be emphasized over small specific facts so students can build enduring, useful knowledge categories and associations that are not constantly changing.
Large, general concepts
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Should be used in teaching.
Stories
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Helping students understand how activity (practice, problem solving, making connections, inquiry, etc.) changes?
Their brain and how emotions and stress affects attention and memory
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a psychologist who developed a theory of cognitive development focused on intellectual development of children
Jean Piaget
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much more than the addition of new facts and ideas to an existing store of information.
Cognitive Development
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change radically, though slowly, from birth to maturity because we constantly strive to make sense of the world.
Thinking process
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the unfolding of the biological changes that are genetically programmed.
Biological maturation
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Parents and teachers have little impact on this aspect of cognitive development, except to be sure that children get the nourishment and care they need to be healthy.
Biological Maturation
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is another influence. With physical maturation comes the increasing ability to act on and learn from the environment
Activity
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the interactions and activities we have with other people that shape our understanding, behaviors, and emotions.
Social Experiences
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According to Piaget, organizing, assimilating, and accommodating can be viewed as a kind of complex balancing act.
Equilibration
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Piaget’s four (4) factors
Biological
Activity
Social Experiences
Equilibration
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Piaget’s concluded that all species inherit two basic tendencies, or?
Invariant Functions
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this are the basic building blocks of thinking. They are organized systems of actions
Schemes
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TWO (2) BASIC THINKING TENDENCIES
Organization and Adaptation
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People are born with a tendency to organize their thinking processes into psychological structures.
Organization
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in addition to the tendency to organize psychological structures, people also inherit the tendency to adapt to their environment
Adaptation
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2 BASIC PROCESSES ARE INVOLVED IN ADAPTATION:
Assimilation
Accommodation
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involves trying to understand something new by fitting it into what we already know.
Assimilation
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occurs when we must change existing schemes to respond to a new situation.
Accommodation
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Stage and Age:
Learns through reflexes, senses, and movement—actions in the environment. Begins to imitate others and remember events; shifts to symbolic thinking. Comes to understand that objects do not cease to exist when they are out of sight-object permanence. Moves from reflexive actions to intentional activity.
Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
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Stage and Age:
Develops language and begins to use symbols to represent objects. Has difficulty with past and future-thinks in the present. Can think through operations logically in one direction. Has difficulties understanding the point of view of another person.
Preoperational (When child starts talking to 7 years old)
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Can think logically about concrete (hands-on) problems. Understands conservation and organizes things into categories and in series. Can reverse thinking to mentally "undo" actions. Understands past, present, and future.
Concrete operational (First grade to early adolescence — 11 years old)
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Can think hypothetically and deductively. Thinking becomes more scientific. Solves abstract problems in logical fashion. Can consider multiple perspectives and develops concerns about social issues, personal identity, and justice.
Formal operational (adolescence to adulthood)
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The earliest period, because the child’s thinking involves seeing, hearing, moving, touching, tasting
Sensorimotor stage (0-2 yeas old)
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Keeping tracking information, or planning. For this, children need what Piaget called operations, or actions that are carried out and reversed mentally rather than physically.
Preoperational stage (7 years old)
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the child is moving toward mastery, but has not yet mastered these mental operations
Preoperational stage
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Thinking =
Preoperational
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The ability to form and use symbols-words, gestures, signs, and images. Vocabulary form about 200 to 2,000 words
Early childhood to early elementary years: the Preoperational stage (7 years old )
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Piaget coined the term concrete operations to describe this stage of ?
Hands-on thinking
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the student knows that if nothing is added or taken away, the material remains the same
Identity
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the student knows that an apparent change in one direction can be compensated for by a change in another direction.
Compensation
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the child understands that a change can be mentally reversed or undone
Reversability
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Three basic aspects of reasoning:
Identity
Compensation
Reversibility
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is also related to REVERSIBILITY
Classification
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The mental ability to reverse a process allows the concrete-operational student to see that there is more than one way to classify a group of objects.
LATER ELEMENTARY TO THE MIDDLE SCHOOL YEARS: THE CONCRETE-OPERATIONAL STAGE GRADE 1 TO 11
YEARS OLD
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is the process of making an orderly arrangement from large to small or vice versa
Seriation
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usually happens during adolescence. At this stage, young people start to think in deeper and more abstract ways. it’s often called “Thinking about thinking” or “mental operations on mental operations”
HIGHSCHOOL AND COLLEGE: FORMAL
OPERATIONS
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Most psychologists believe that some people do reach a?
Higher level of thinking called formal operational thinking
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are not tied to physical things. It’s more about abstract thinking, solving hypothetical problems, and scientific reasoning
Formal operations
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College students usually develop these skills because they practice abstract thinking in school, However, not all high school students can do this.
Formal operational thinking/ task
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is a complex process influenced by the brain's growth and the acquisition of skills like attention, memory, and learning strategies
Cognitive Development
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laid the groundwork for understanding how children construct knowledge
Piaget’s theory
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As children grow, their brains become more efficient at processing information, leading to improvements of:
Attention
Memory capacity
Impulse control
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Children can focus on things for longer periods and handle more difficult tasks as they grow
Attention
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Their memory improves, allowing them to remember and work with more information at the same time.
Memory Capacity
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They become better at stopping themselves from reacting immediately, giving them time to think before responding.
Impulse control
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expanded on Piaget's ideas by adding new insights about attention, memory, and strategy use
Neo-piagetian theory
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The Two key theorists in the area of neo piagetian theories:
Robbie case and Kurt fischer
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Case believed that children develop in stages within specific areas, like understanding numbers, spatial reasoning, storytelling, and physical movements.
Stages in specific areas
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When children practice certain skills repeatedly, those skills become automatic. This means the brain doesn’t have to work as hard, allowing kids to focus on more challenging tasks.
Practice and Automatization
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As children get better at simpler skills, they start combining those skills into more advanced strategies. This idea connects with Piaget’s concepts of?
Assimilation and accommodation
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fitting new information into what they already know
Assimilation
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adjusting their thinking to include new experiences
Accomodation
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Cognitive development happens across different domains (e.g., reading, math) but follows a similar pattern of stages
Kurt Fischer’s Theory
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Learning basic skills through practice
Actions
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Coordinating simple actions into more complex tasks.
Representation
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Developing broader principles and applying them to new situations
Abstractions
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refer to the brain’s incredible ability to adapt and reorganize itself, especially when learning or recovering from injury
Brain Plasticity and Multiple Learning Pathways
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This idea says sudden changes in thinking actually come from slow growth.
Catastrophe Theory
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The challenges Piaget presented to children may have obscured their true abilities
Task complexity
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Evidence suggests that children may be born with core__________________________such as the understanding of object permanence and number sense.
Cognitive Tools
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Piaget’s theory did not account for the fact that children can show______________________ in specific areas where they have expertise
advanced cognitive abilities
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Another limitation of Piaget’s theory is the belief that children must reach a?
particular developmental stage before learning certain concepts.
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Contrary to Piaget's belief that cognitive operations like conservation cannot be taught before a child is developmentally ready, studies have shown that________________ can speed up understanding.
effective teaching
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This implies that learning is significantly influenced by__________________________, challenging Piaget's
emphasis on biological readiness.
instruction and experience
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Children's cognitive development is not solely driven by___________________ but is also shaped by their?
innate readiness
environment and experiences
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Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is well-known, but one main criticism is that it doesn’t fully consider the role of?
Culture and social environment in a child’s growth.
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The major spokes person this for this sociocultural theory was a Russian psychologist named?
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky
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believed that human activities take place in cultural settings and that they cannot be understood apart from these settings.
Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective
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Vygotsky's concept of the social origins of individual thinking, focusing on how our mental processes develop through?
Social interaction
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Between people
Interpsychological
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Inside people
Intrapsychological
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Built together with the child and other person
Co-construction
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Becoming part of the child’s own cognitive development and toolkit
Internalization
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Believed social interaction leads to cognitive development through "disequilibrium" (cognitive conflict), primarily through peer interaction and will motivate change or development
Piaget
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Emphasized that learning is fostered by interactions with more knowledgeable individuals (adults, teachers) who guide the child
Vygotsky
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They enable individuals to gain mastery over their own cognitive processes
“Mediate” higher-order mental process
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Vygotsky saw this as more than just communication; it's the very foundation of thought. It frees us from the immediate situation to think about what was and what things might be.
language
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It's the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with help from a more knowledgeable person (adult or peer). It's where learning is most effective. It is also called as the Magic Middle because it’s the ideal space for teaching and learning.
ZPD or Zone of Proximal Development
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Zone of Proximal development also called as?
Magic middle
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Tools of the Mind curriculum for young children is?
Play plans
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Play plans is tools of the?
Mind curriculum for young children
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created by the students themselves. Children draw a picture of how they plan to play that day, and then describe it to the teacher, who may make notes on the page and thus model literacy activities. Plans become more complex and detailed as children become better planners.
Tools of the Mind curriculum for young children(play plans
