Chapter 2&4

Question 1

Is nature/nurture responsible for human behavior?

Answer 1

1. Almost all behavior is heritable to some degree
   2.Genes do not operate in isolation from the environment. Throughout the life span, the environment shapes how our genes are expressed, and our genes also shape our environments

Question 2

Gene expression

Answer 2

What genes do is make proteins that in turn make the body and brain work. Some of these proteins switch other genes on and off

Question 3

Psychological disorders are polygenic

Answer 3

meaning that the influence of several genes, perhaps operating at different times during development, turning themselves on and off as they interact with a person’s environment, is the essence of genetic vulnerability

Question 4

Do we inherit psychological disorders from our genes alone?

Answer 4

No we develop them through the interaction of our genes with our environments

Question 5

Heritability

Answer 5

Heritability refers to the extent to
which variability in a particular behavior (or disorder) in a population can be accounted for by
genetic influences.

Question 6

There are two important points about heritability to keep in mind:

Answer 6

1. Heritability estimates range from 0.0 to 1.0: the higher the number the greater the heritability
2. Heritability is relevant ONLY for a large population of peole, not a particular individual. Thus, it is incorrect to talk about any one person’s heritability for a particular behavior or disorder. Knowing that the heritability of attention-deficit/
   hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is around 0.70 does not mean that 70% of Jane’s ADHD is the product of her genes and 30% other influences. Rather, it means that in a population (e.g., a large sample in a study), the variation in ADHD is understood as being attributed to 70% genetic influences and 30%
   environmental influences. There is no heritability of ADHD (or any disorder) for a particular individual.

Question 7

Shared environment

Answer 7

factors include those things that members of a family have in common, such as family income level, child-rearing practices, and parents’ marital status and quality.

Question 8

Nonshared environment

Answer 8

factors are those things believed to be distinct among members of a family, such as relationships with friends or specific events unique to a person (e.g., being in a car accident or on the swim team), and these are believed to be important in understanding why two siblings from the same family can be so different

Question 9

Behavior genetics

Answer 9

Is the study of THE DEGREE to which genes and environmental factors influence behavior. Note that behavior genetics is not the study of how genes or the environment
determines behavior. Many behavior genetics studies estimate the heritability of a psychological
disorder without providing any information about how the genes might work

Question 10

Genotype

Answer 10

The total genetic makeup of an individual, consisting of inherited genes, is referred to as the

Question 11

Phenotype

Answer 11

The phenotype is the product of an interaction between the genotype and the environment. For example, a person may be born with the capacity for high intellectual achievement, but whether he or she develops this genetically given potential depends on environmental influences such as upbringing and education.

Question 12

Is intelligence an index of phenotype or genotype?

Answer 12

Phenotype

Question 13

Molecular genetics

Answer 13

studies seek to identify genes and their functions.

Question 14

Alleles

Answer 14

Different forms of the same gene are called alleles. The alleles of a gene are found at the same location, or locus, of a chromosome pair.

Question 15

polymorphism

Answer 15

refers to a difference in DNA sequence on a gene that has occurred in a population.

Question 16

What are SNPs (Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms), and why are they significant?

Answer 16

SNPs are the most common type of genetic variation, representing single nucleotide differences between DNA strands. Nearly 10 million SNPs have been identified. They have been studied in relation to disorders like schizophrenia, autism, anxiety, eating, and mood disorders. SNP-based heritability (h² SNP) estimates are used to understand genetic risk in these conditions.

Question 17

What are CNVs (Copy Number Variations), and how do they affect the human genome?

Answer 17

CNVs are variations in the number of copies of sections of DNA. These can be additions (extra copies) or deletions (missing copies). About 5% of the human genome contains CNVs, which can be inherited or de novo mutations. They play a role in genetic disorders, including schizophrenia, autism, and ADHD

Question 18

How do Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) work, and what do they reveal?

Answer 18

GWAS analyze genetic sequences from large samples to identify SNPs associated with psychological disorders by comparing individuals with and without the disorder. They have been used in studies for disorders like schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, autism, and Alzheimer’s. GWAS also help calculate polygenic risk scores to predict individual genetic risk for diseases.

Question 19

What two key insights have emerged from GWAS research on psychological disorders?

Answer 19

1) Many psychological disorders are polygenic, meaning multiple genes are involved.

2) There is common genetic risk across different disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, ADHD, and anxiety disorders, indicating shared genetic factors.

Question 20

What is a gene–environment interaction, and how does it work?

Answer 20

A gene–environment interaction means that a person’s sensitivity to an environmental event is influenced by their genes. For example, a person with a specific gene (XYZ) may develop a fear of snakes after being bitten, while someone without that gene may not develop the same fear, even after the same experience.

Question 21

What is epigenetics, and how does it relate to gene expression?

Answer 21

Epigenetics is the study of how the environment alters gene expression. It involves chemical “marks” like DNA methyl tags or histones that control gene function. These marks can be influenced by environmental factors and can even be passed down across generations, affecting gene expression in offspring and grandchildren.

Question 22

What are the three main challenges in understanding the role of genetics in psychological disorders?

Answer 22

1. Gene–Environment Interaction: Understanding how genes and environments influence each other over time, especially in complex human environments.
2. Genetic Complexity: Recognizing that multiple genes contribute to a disorder, and the pathway from genes to behavior involves many biological and psychosocial processes.
3. Genetic Vulnerability: Genetic risk often increases vulnerability to multiple disorders rather than being specific to one, with different vulnerabilities linked to internalizing disorders (e.g., depression), externalizing disorders (e.g., substance use), and psychotic disorders (e.g., schizophrenia).

Question 23

What are the main parts of a neuron and how do they communicate?

Answer 23

Neurons have four main parts: (1) cell body, (2) dendrites (short extensions), (3) axons (one long extension), and (4) terminal buttons. When stimulated, a nerve impulse travels down the axon to the synapse, where neurotransmitters bridge the gap to send signals to the next neuron. Messages can be excitatory or inhibitory.

Question 24

What is the role of neurotransmitters, and how can they affect psychological disorders?

Answer 24

Neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA help neurons communicate across synapses. They are involved in disorders like depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. Imbalances in neurotransmitter production, reuptake, or receptor function may contribute to these disorders.

Question 25

How does brain development and connectivity relate to psychological disorders?

Answer 25

Brain development continues into early adulthood, with processes like pruning (eliminating synapses) shaping brain connections. Issues with connectivity between brain regions (e.g., structural, functional, and effective connectivity) are linked to psychological disorders like schizophrenia. Brain networks, such as the frontoparietal and default-mode networks, are involved in cognitive and emotional processes.

Question 26

What is the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in psychological disorders?

Answer 26

The HPA axis is central to the body’s stress response. When threatened, the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), which triggers the release of cortisol. Chronic stress can lead to changes in cortisol release patterns, which are linked to disorders like depression, PTSD, and schizophrenia.

Question 27

How does stress impact the immune system and psychological disorders?

Answer 27

Stress activates the immune system, triggering inflammation and the release of cytokines. Pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-1, TNF-alpha) are implicated in several psychological disorders, including depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. Chronic stress can exacerbate these immune responses.

Question 28

How does neuroscience contribute to understanding psychological disorders, and what caution is needed?

Answer 28

Neuroscience helps identify brain networks involved in disorders and the effects of medications. However, reductionism, or reducing complex behaviors to brain activity alone, can be misleading. Psychosocial interventions, like therapy, can also influence brain functioning, emphasizing the need for a broader approach to treatment.

Question 29

List four subcortical areas of the brain.

Answer 29

Anterior cingulate, hippocampus, hypothalamus, amygdala.

Question 30

The _________ matter of the brain consists of the tracts of myelinated fibers that connect cells.

Answer 30

white matter

Question 31

Neurotransmitters that are studied in psychological disorders include _________, which can produce states of high arousal, and GABA, which inhibits nerve impulses.

Answer 31

Norepinephrine

Question 32

What does the HPA axis consist of?

Answer 32

Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal glands, and cortisol release.

Question 33

What part of the immune system is associated with depression?

Answer 33

Pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-1, TNF-alpha).

Question 34

What is behavioral activation (BA) therapy used for in the treatment of depression?

Answer 34

BA therapy helps a person identify and engage in tasks and behaviors that provide opportunities for positive reinforcement, reducing depression

Question 35

What is the basic principle behind exposure therapy used for treating phobias and anxiety?

Answer 35

The basic principle is that anxiety will extinguish if the person faces the object or situation long enough without actual harm occurring, either through real-life or imaginal exposure.

Question 36

Behaviorism and behavior therapy were often critized for minimizing the importance of two factors

Answer 36

- thinking: - feeling And the way we think and feel about things undoubtedly influences our behavior

Question 37

Cognition

Answer 37

is a term that groups together the mental processes of perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, judging, and reasoning.

Question 38

schema

Answer 38

A person fits new information into an organized network of already accumulated knowledge. If the schema doesn't fit, the person reorganizes the schema to fit the information or construes the information in such a way as to fit the schema

Question 39

Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)

Answer 39

incorporates theory and research on cognitive processes. Cognitive behavior therapists pay attention to private events—thoughts, perceptions, judgments, self-statements, and even tacit (unconscious) assumptions—and have studied and manipulated these processes in their attempts to understand and modify overt and covert disturbed behavior.

Question 40

Cognitive restructuring

Answer 40

is a general term for changing a pattern of thought. People with depression may not realize how often they think self-critically, and those with anxiety disorders may not realize that they tend to be overly sensitive to possible threats in the world.

Question 41

What is the main idea behind Beck’s Cognitive Therapy for depression?

Answer 41

Beck’s Cognitive Therapy suggests that depression is caused by distortions in how people perceive life experiences, particularly focusing on negative events and ignoring positive ones. The goal is to alter negative schemas to foster hope instead of despair.

Question 42

What distinguishes the "third wave" of behavioral therapies, like acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT)?

Answer 42

The "third wave" therapies differ from traditional CBT by focusing on spirituality, values, emotional acceptance, and minimizing emotional avoidance, with techniques such as meditation used to increase emotional awareness and avoid impulsive reactions

Question 43

What is distinctive in cognitive behavioral approaches:

Answer 43

that the thoughts are given causal status; that is, the thoughts are regarded as causing the other features of the disorder, such as sadness.

Question 44

How do emotions influence behavior and psychological disorders?

Answer 44

Emotions help organize thoughts and actions and guide behavior. Disturbances in emotional processing are found in about 85% of psychological disorders.

Question 45

What are the three main measures of emotion in psychological disorders?

Answer 45

1) Expressive (e.g., facial expressions) 2) Subjective experience (self-reported feelings) 3) Physiological (e.g., changes in heart rate).

Question 46

What is the difference between emotion, affect, and mood?

Answer 46

Emotions are short-lived, affect refers to brief emotional feelings, and moods are longer-lasting emotional states.

Question 47

What is ideal affect and how does it differ across cultures?

Answer 47

Ideal affect is the emotional state a person wants to feel. Western cultures value high-arousal emotions like happiness, while East Asian cultures value calmness.

Question 48

How do gender and sex assigned at birth influence psychological disorder prevalence?

Answer 48

Women are more likely to experience depression and eating disorders; men are more likely to have antisocial personality disorder and alcohol use disorder.

Question 49

How does poverty and income inequality relate to psychological disorders?

Answer 49

Poverty is linked to disorders like depression and antisocial personality disorder. Greater income inequality is associated with higher rates of psychological disorders.

Question 50

How do cultural differences affect the expression and understanding of disorders like schizophrenia?

Answer 50

Schizophrenia is seen worldwide, but symptom interpretation varies. For example, in India or Ghana, hearing voices may not be considered pathological, unlike in the U.S.

Question 51

How can racism and discrimination impact mental health and diagnosis?

Answer 51

Discrimination contributes to psychological distress. Racial bias can lead to misdiagnoses; for instance, Black Americans are often misdiagnosed and under-treated for bipolar disorder.

Question 52

Ideal affect

Answer 52

the kinds of emotional states that a person ideally wants to feel.

Question 53

Interpersonal therapy (IPT)

Answer 53

phasizes the impor tance of current relationships in a person’s life and how problems in these relationships can contribute to psychological symptoms. The therapist first encourages the patient to identify feelings about their relationships and to express these feelings and then helps the patient gen erate solutions to interpersonal problems.

Question 54

In IPT, four interpersonal issues are assessed to examine whether one or more of them might be having an impact on symptoms:

Answer 54

* Unresolved grief—for example, experiencing delayed or incomplete grieving following a loss * Role transitions—for example, transitioning from child to parent or from worker to retired person * Role disputes—for example, resolving different relation ship expectations between romantic partners * Interpersonal or social deficits—for example, not being able to begin a conversation with an unfamiliar person or finding it difficult to negotiate with a boss at work

Question 55

What are challenges for studying influences?

Answer 55

- Identifying causal relationships - you cannot manipulate and randomly assign people to different conditions - many of the factors are strongly related to one another.

Question 56

What makes a good theory

Answer 56

A scientific approach requires that the theory and hypotheses be stated clearly and precisely so that scientific claims can be exposed to systematic tests that could negate the scientist’s expectations. That is, regardless of how plausible a theory seems, it must be subject to disproof. Science proceeds by disproving theories, never by “proving theories.”

Question 57

Case studies can be used for:

Answer 57

1. to provide a rich description of a new or unusual clinical phenomenon or treatment 2. To disprove an allegedly universal hypothesis 3. To generate hypotheses that can be tested through quantitative research

Question 57

There are several problems in interpreting case studies

Answer 57

- the objectivity of case studies is limited. The author's view will shape the kinds of information reported in a case study - They do not provide good evidence in support of a theory because they do not rule out alternative hypothesis - The data yielded by the case study do not allow us to determine the true cause of the change

Question 57

Correlational studies

Answer 57

- do variable X and variable Y vary together (co relate)

Question 58

Clinical significance

Answer 58

Clinical significance is defined by whether a relationship between variables is large enough to matter

Question 59

What is the directionality problem in correlational research?

Answer 59

It's the issue that correlation does not establish which variable is the cause and which is the effect.

Question 60

How does a longitudinal design help overcome the directionality problem?

Answer 60

It measures potential causes before the disorder develops, showing that causes precede effects.

Question 61

What is the high-risk method in psychological research?

Answer 61

A method where researchers study individuals at greater risk (e.g., children of parents with schizophrenia) to examine early predictors of disorders.

Question 62

What is the third-variable problem and how does it affect correlational research?

Answer 62

It refers to the possibility that a third factor (confound) explains the observed correlation, making causal conclusions unreliable.

Question 63

Epidemiology

Answer 63

is the study of the distribution of disorders in a population. That is, data are gathered about the rates of disorder and the correlates of disorder in a large sample.

Question 64

Epidemiologic research focuses on three features of a disorder

Answer 64

1. prevalence: The proportion of people with the disorder either currently or during their lifetime 2. Incidence: The proportion of people who develop new cases of the disorder in some period, usually a year 3. Correlates: Variables that are correlated with the presence of the disorder

Question 65

Epidemiologic studies are correlational or experimental?

Answer 65

usually correlational

Question 66

family method

Answer 66

can be used to study a genetic predisposition among members of a family because the average number of genes shared by two blood relatives is known. Children receive a random sample of half their genes from one parent and half from the other, so, on average, siblings as well as parents and their children share 50% of their genes. People who share 50% of their genes with a given person are called first-degree relatives of that person

Question 67

What does it mean when relatives are "concordant" for a psychological disorder?

Answer 67

It means both relatives either have or both do not have the disorder.

Question 68

In family studies, what are "index cases" or "probands"?

Answer 68

Individuals diagnosed with a disorder who are the starting point for studying genetic relationships in their relatives.

Question 69

Why can't family studies alone confirm that a disorder is genetically inherited?

Answer 69

Because shared environments (like child-rearing practices) can also explain familial patterns of a disorder.

Question 70

How does the twin method support genetic influence on disorders?

Answer 70

If monozygotic (MZ) twins show higher concordance for a disorder than dizygotic (DZ) twins, it suggests heritability.

Question 71

What is the adoptees method, and what does it clarify?

Answer 71

It studies children adopted away from biological parents; if a disorder appears in adoptees with affected biological parents, it supports genetic influence.

Question 72

What does a cross-fostering study examine in psychological research?

Answer 72

It looks at adoptees raised by adoptive parents with a disorder (not biological), helping to isolate environmental effects.

Question 73

In one form of single-case design, referred to as a reversal design or an ABAB design, the participant’s behavior is carefully measured in a specific sequence:

Answer 73

1. An initial time period, the baseline (A) 2. A period when a treatment is introduced (B) 3. A reinstatement of the conditions of the baseline period (A) 4. A reintroduction of the treatment (B)

Question 74

Treatment outcome research

Answer 74

designed to address a simple question: Does treatment work?

Question 75

most researchers agree that a treatment study should include the following criteria:

Answer 75

* A clear definition of the sample being studied, such as a description of diagnoses or problem behavior to be addressed * A clear description of the treatment being offered, as in a treatment manual (described in a later section) * Inclusion of a control or comparison treatment condition * An experimental design that involves random assignment of clients to treatment or comparison conditions * Reliable and valid outcome measures (see Chapter 3 for definitions of reliability and validity) * Evaluation of outcomes by a rater who is unaware of the patient’s treatment assignment * A large enough sample size

Question 76

A good manual provides ....

Answer 76

enough freedom that therapists will not feel constrained—for example, it may describe ways to use exposure treatment to reduce conditioned fears in anxiety disorders but also give a menu of options of how to conduct exposure

Question 77

Double-blind procedure

Answer 77

psychiatrist and the patient are not told whether the patient is receiving active medication or a placebo

Question 78

What is the difference between efficacy and effectiveness in RCTs

Answer 78

Efficacy: How well a treatment works under ideal, controlled conditions (usually in academic settings). Effectiveness: How well the treatment works in the real world with broader, more complex cases and less therapist supervision. RCTs test efficacy; effectiveness studies test real-world application.

Question 79

What is dissemination in psychotherapy research?

Answer 79

Dissemination is the process of spreading evidence-based treatments (ESTs) into the community by: Publishing treatment guidelines Training clinicians Adapting treatments for different populations (e.g., shorter versions, online delivery, or use by non-specialists) It's key to increasing access to effective care, especially in under-resourced areas.

Question 80

precise, experimental (good for internal validity)

Answer 80

Analogue

Question 81

real-world, natural (good for external validity)

Answer 81

Correlational

Question 82

What is analogue research in psychology, and why is it used?

Answer 82

Analogue research is used when ethical or practical barriers prevent direct study of psychological disorders. Researchers create or study less severe or simulated versions of symptoms or risk factors (e.g., inducing mild anxiety in a lab or studying high-anxiety students). Three types: Analogue experiments – simulate mild symptoms in controlled settings (e.g., lactate-induced panic). Analogue samples – study people who resemble clinical populations (e.g., distressed college students). Animal models – use animals to explore biological mechanisms or test treatments. While these methods offer high internal validity, they may lack external validity—so their findings are best combined with correlational and longitudinal studies to fully understand disorders.

Question 83

What is replication and why is it important in psychological research?

Answer 83

Replication means repeating a study to see if the original findings hold up. It's essential for confirming results and maintaining scientific credibility. Low replication rates damage public trust and mislead future research.

Question 84

What is publication bias and how does it affect research?

Answer 84

Publication bias is the tendency for journals to publish only positive results. This distorts the scientific record by hiding failed replications and exaggerating treatment effects.

Question 85

What is meta-analysis and why is it used?

Answer 85

Meta-analysis combines results from multiple studies using effect sizes to draw more reliable conclusions. It reduces individual researcher bias and provides stronger overall evidence.

Question 86

What are the steps in a meta-analysis?

Answer 86

1. Literature search 2. Convert study findings to a common effect size 3. Average across studies 4. Evaluate publication bias and study quality

Question 87

What are the pros and cons of meta-analysis?

Answer 87

✅Can summarize lots of data and detect overall trends ❌ May include poor-quality studies or use questionable inclusion criteria A good meta-analysis is transparent about quality criteria.

Question 88

client centered treatment

Answer 88

active listening, giving the client room to talk, reflective listening, naming the feelings the idea: if the therapist provides a relationship that is characterized by authenticity, unconditional positive regard and empathy, the client can self-actualise and become fully functioning. - people have an ideal self and real self, and often these are perceived as incongruent by the client. If these are explored with the therapist using the abovementioned tools, it can alleviate some symptoms/concerns. - research on ths says that these conditions are necessary for therapeutic effectiveness, but not sufficient on their own. - work at the complaints and symptoms level and the processes level

Question 88

The step in meta-analysis that has received extensive criticism is:

Answer 88

determining which studies should be included

Question 89

Cognitive therapy

Answer 89

defining a clear goal, dispute inferences of the client, offer hypotheses about irrational beliefs. - cognitive therapy is about challenging cognitions and trying to change them by letting clients convince themselves of their irrationality. - work at the complaints and symptoms level and the processes level. - behaviour and emotions very much colour your cognitions. So instead of only challenging cognitions like in cognitive therapy. Another approach is to let the cognition be (acceppting it) and focussing on changing the emotions and behavior instead. This approach is an essential part of these therapies - mindfulness based cognitive therapy - acceptance and commitment therapy -dialectical behaviour therapy

Question 90

experimental therapy

Answer 90

In the chair technique, he makes clients act out a conversation with something or someone they need to confront - it is about creating new experiences and memories, in the right here and now, that might influence future decisions and thoughts - based on gestalt psychology, which looks at coherent wholes - works at the complaints & symptoms and processes level