Chapter 2: Cognitive Neuroscience Methods

Question 1

What is localization of function?

Answer 1

Refers to the idea that specific areas of the brain are dedicated to performing particular functions, meaning different parts of the brain are responsible for different tasks. It is primarily attributed to the structure and organization of the cerebral cortex.

Question 2

What is Capgras syndrome?

Answer 2

Damage to the amygdala.

Question 3

What does localization data confirm about the amygdala?

Answer 3

It confirms the role of the amygdala in both emotional processing and the experience of familiarity.

Question 4

What happens with a lesion on the left primary visual cortex?

Answer 4

It leads to right homonymous hemianopia, meaning the right visual field is lost in both eyes.

Question 5

What does the hindbrain control?

Answer 5

Life functions like heartbeat rhythm and alertness, and maintains posture and balance.

Question 6

What are the functions of the midbrain?

Answer 6

Coordinates precise eye movements, relays auditory information to the forebrain, and regulates pain.

Question 7

What is the forebrain?

Answer 7

The largest and most complex brain region, containing the cerebral cortex.

Question 8

What are the subcortical structures of the brain?

Answer 8

Thalamus: Relay station for sensory information to the cortex. Hypothalamus: Regulates behaviors linked to biological needs (e.g., eating, drinking, sexual activity).

Question 9

What functions are associated with the left hemisphere?

Answer 9

Language processing.

Question 10

What functions are associated with the right hemisphere?

Answer 10

Spatial judgment and some creative tasks.

Question 11

What are misconceptions about hemispheres?

Answer 11

Claims like ‘silencing one hemisphere increases creativity’ are misleading; creativity, intuition, and other skills rely on contributions from both hemispheres for seamless integration.

Question 12

How do the hemispheres integrate?

Answer 12

Hemispheres work together via commissures (e.g., corpus callosum). Split-brain research highlights specialization but underscores the need for collaboration between hemispheres.

Question 13

What is the cerebral cortex?

Answer 13

A thin layer of tissue covering the cerebrum; crucial for information processing.

Question 14

What are the regions of the cerebral cortex?

Answer 14

Motor, sensory, association.

Question 15

What is the prefrontal cortex associated with in adolescents?

Answer 15

Decision-making, planning, judgment, and impulse control; reaches full maturity in the 20s.

Question 16

What is the limbic system’s role in adolescents?

Answer 16

Involves emotion and response to incentives; develops earlier than the prefrontal cortex, causing heightened emotional reactivity and sensitivity to immediate rewards.

Question 17

What is the imbalance between the limbic system and prefrontal cortex in adolescents?

Answer 17

Early development of the limbic system vs. delayed maturation of the prefrontal cortex leads to strong emotional and reward sensitivity, weak impulse control, and risky behavior.

Question 18

What is dualism?

Answer 18

The view that mind and brain are separate substances, but they interact and influence one another; this view has fallen out of favor in modern times.

Question 19

What is epiphenomenalism?

Answer 19

The mind is simply a by-product of brain processes and is irrelevant for understanding behavior - endorsed by behaviorists.

Question 20

What is parallelism?

Answer 20

The mind and brain are two aspects of the same reality; every event in the mind has a corresponding event in the brain, and vice versa.

Question 21

What is phrenology?

Answer 21

The idea that individual differences in mental abilities are reflected in unique patterns of cranial shape/protrusions; assumed that specific functions were localized to specific parts of the brain.

Question 22

What is equipotentiality?

Answer 22

The idea that all brain regions contribute equally to complex mental functions; studied by Karl Lashley in maze learning in rats after making series of cortical lesions.

Question 23

What is functional specialization?

Answer 23

The current view that different regions have some functional specificity, allowing for functional connections between regions - brain ‘networks’.

Question 24

What evidence supports functional specialization?

Answer 24

Brain-injured patients, medial temporal lobe amnesia, functional magnetic resonance imaging, fusiform face area, and parahippocampal place area.

Question 25

What is the brain's network in terms of functional specialization?

Answer 25

The brain is massively interconnected; complex functions often emerge from different regions 'talking' to each other.

Question 26

What are ethical and societal issues of cognitive neuroscience?

Answer 26

Legal system implications, responsibility and free will, and brain development and criminal responsibility.

Question 27

What does neuropsychology focus on?

Answer 27

Individuals with brain damage caused by accident, disease, or birth defects, examining how brain damage to specific areas impacts functions.

Question 28

What are neural recordings?

Answer 28

Microelectrodes inserted into neural tissue can measure local field potentials and activity from single neurons; studies found specific responses in neurons.

Question 29

What are the benefits of neural recordings?

Answer 29

They provide a direct measure of neural activity and insight into the functional specificity of neurons.

Question 30

What are the limits of neural recordings?

Answer 30

Typically performed in animals only, often requires animal sacrifice, and provides limited insight into large-scale network properties.

Question 31

What are lesion studies in animals?

Answer 31

Studying the functional properties of animal brains can inform our understanding of human brains; can obtain information that would be nearly impossible otherwise.

Question 32

What are reversible lesions?

Answer 32

Temporary cooling of the cerebral cortex can deactivate particular brain regions while retaining functional integrity once temperature returns to normal.

Question 33

What are human lesion studies?

Answer 33

The study of psychological impairment following neural injury in humans.

Question 34

What is Broca's aphasia?

Answer 34

Difficulty in producing speech and paucity of language.

Question 35

What is Wernicke's aphasia?

Answer 35

Fluent speech output, but little meaning, often described as 'word salad'.

Question 36

What is prosopagnosia?

Answer 36

'Face blindness'; difficulty identifying familiar faces, which can be congenital or acquired from brain injury.

Question 37

What are split-brain patients?

Answer 37

Patients with severed corpus callosum, leading to lost communication between hemispheres; allows assessment of how each hemisphere processes information independently.

Question 38

What are the strengths of human lesion studies?

Answer 38

They can provide evidence for a causal role of particular brain regions in different cognitive functions and evidence for distinct neural systems.

Question 39

What are the limitations of human lesion studies?

Answer 39

Naturally-occurring lesions are often messy, affecting many neighboring areas, making it difficult to determine critical functions; ethical concerns limit introducing brain lesions in humans.

Question 40

What is psychophysiology?

Answer 40

Traditionally focused on the relationship between the peripheral nervous system and behavior, now incorporates electroencephalography (EEG) as well.

Question 41

What does electrocardiography measure?

Answer 41

Electrical activity of the heart, linking changes in cardiovascular functioning to behavior.

Question 42

What does facial electromyography measure?

Answer 42

Changes in facial muscle activity, important in studies of emotion.

Question 43

What is skin conductance?

Answer 43

A classic measure of autonomic arousal, modulated by skin sweating.

Question 44

What is pupillometry?

Answer 44

Measures dilation and constriction of the pupil, driven by both the peripheral and sympathetic nervous systems.

Question 45

What does electroencephalography (EEG) measure?

Answer 45

Small electrical potentials from the scalp; provides high temporal resolution but relatively low spatial resolution.

Question 46

What are event-related potentials in EEG?

Answer 46

Systematic changes in neural activity linked to cognitive processing; stimulus-locked changes can predict later responses.

Question 47

What is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

Answer 47

A non-invasive imaging technique that measures metabolic activity related to neural functioning, providing an indirect measure of neural activity.

Question 48

What is the resolution of fMRI?

Answer 48

Excellent spatial resolution with mm precision but poor temporal resolution; BOLD response is sluggish.

Question 49

What are the benefits of fMRI?

Answer 49

Can cross-validate findings from lesion studies and communicate with non-responsive patients.

Question 50

What are the limitations of fMRI?

Answer 50

Criticized for leading to a 'modern phrenology', too much emphasis on single brain regions, reverse inference issues, and high costs.

Question 51

What is platelet-rich plasma?

Answer 51

A biologic therapy that uses a patient's own blood to treat injuries and conditions, often used for musculoskeletal problems.