Chapter 2 Environmental Research and Data Collection Flashcards
Scientific Methods - Interplay between observations and formation, testings and evaluation of hypothesis
- Observe - asking a question about something you observ
- Research - doing background research to learn what is already known about the topic
- hypothesis - an idea/statement/ theory that is made based on scientific/ experimental evidence/data.
- test - experimenting to test the hypothesis
- Analyse - the data from the experiment and drawing conclusions,
- Report - communicating the results
Dependent and Independent variable
Dependent variable
- depends on other factors
- is the variable that is being measured or tested in an experiment
- a factor in an experiment that can change depending on the independent variable
** Independence variable**
- The independent variable is responsible for changing the dependent variable.
- can manipulate or change the independent variable to measure its impact on other variables.
** Example:**
You want to see the effect of studying or sleeping on a test score. In the example, “test score” is the dependent variable. “Studying” or “sleeping” is the independent variable because these factors impact how much a student scores on the tes
Environment Research | Climate Change
- Reliable
The extent to which an
experiment, test, or any measuring
procedure yields the same result on
repeated trials. - Bias
Systematic errors in the way the
sample represents the population
Bias occurs when the physical or social environment whrere the study takes place is not conclusive or stable or controlled for research purposes/context. Being aware of biases is important to avoid making assumptions and to conduct unbiased research. It helps us approach situations with an open mind, enhances the validity of research findings, promotes objectivity, and ensures ethical conduct.
Bias can be due to
* Undercoverage
* Nonresponse
* Behavior of the interviewer or respondent
* Poorly worded questions
- Bias led to misuse of scientific data (related to climate change) underrepresentation of the urgency and severity of climate change, while a few involve an overrepresentation (e.g., heightened attention to climate change)
Limitations in the measurement of data lead to uncertainity in results
Even though there is evidence that acid deposition causes defoliation we did not “prove” our hypothesis correct.
Examples related to climate change, unreliable data that has led to false reporting of scientific conclusions
- lack of public/media knowledge
- Limited historical data used to reconstruct past climate conditions (ice cores, tree rings, historical accounts);
- future climate predictions are made using climate change models which use different variables;
- climate feedback mechanisms are not fully understood;
- time delay between cause and effect;
- uncertainty over the use of some data in drawing conclusions has resulted in differences in scientific and political opinion.
Collection of environmental data (SAMPLING)
Sampling strategies are used to collect representative data.
Sampling is a method of investigating the abundance and distribution of species and populations
There are two different types of sampling:
- Random
- Systematic
**Random sampling **
- The positions of the sampling points are completely random or due to chance
- This method is beneficial because it means there will be no sampling bias by the person that is carrying out the sampling that may affect the results
systematic sampling
- The positions of the sampling points are chosen by the person carrying out the sampling
- There is a possibility that the person choosing could show bias towards or against certain areas
- Individuals may deliberately place the quadrats in areas with the least species as these will be easier and quicker to count
- This is unrepresentative of the whole area
-
Random sampling v systematic sampling
In simple random sampling, each data point has an equal probability of being chosen. Meanwhile, systematic sampling chooses a data point per each predetermined interval. While systematic sampling is easier to execute than simple random sampling, it can produce skewed results if the data set exhibits patterns
Outline the development of historical data using examples related to climate change
Limited amount of historical Development of scientific theory - Greenhouse Effect, Global warming
Advances in technology
The Lincoln Index
- Estimated Population Size: The Lincoln Index is used to estimate population size, where N (estimated population size) equals (n1 × n2) ÷ m2.
- n1: Number of individuals captured in the first sample.
- n2: Number of individuals (both marked and unmarked) captured in the second sample.
- m2: Number of marked individuals recaptured in the second sample.
Simpson’s Index of Diversity
- Estimated Biodiversity: Simpson’s Index of Diversity (D) is used to estimate biodiversity, calculated as D = 1 - ∑(n/N)^2.
- ∑: Sum of the total number of individuals of each type present in the sample.
- n: Number of individuals of each type present in the sample.
- N: Total number of all individuals of all types present in the sample
Estimate % cover and frequency of using quadrat data
- Quadrats are (usually square) frames used for identifying a sample area and counting individuals that lie within it
- Quadrats are used to estimate the abundance and distribution of a species.
- There may be some squares lacking any species and other squares with multiple species - this means the total percentage cover of a single quadrat can sometimes be over or under 100%
Percentage Frequency = (number of quadrats containing target species ÷ total number of quadrats) x 100
Example:
if bluebells were found in 18 out of 50 quadrats the species frequency would be (18/50) x 100 = 36%
Estimate abundance using quadrat data
use suitable abundance scale such as ACFOR
The ACFOR scale is used by biologists to estimate abundance:
ACFOR = Abundant, Common, Frequent, Occasional, Rare
This is a suitable (though less quantitative) method that can be used for the lichen example above
For seabed analysis, the use of quadrats is carried out, using specialist diving equipment and expertise to analyse and identify the contents of the quadrats
Methods of Data collection using technology
Geospatial systems
a system for capturing, storing, analyzing and managing geographic data and associated attributes which are spatially referenced to the earth.
statellite sensors.
Satellite sensors that measure infrared radiation infer the amount of heat emitted from an object at the Earth’s surface. Objects with an average earth temperature (roughly − 50° to 50°C, or − 58° to 122°F) emit most of their energy in the infrared region
radio tracking
An observational technique used in field studies of animal behaviour, in which the animal is fitted with a battery-powered, fixed-frequency radio transmitter, usually attached to a collar, and the observer is equipped with a receiver and directional antenna.
computer modelling
is the process of mathematical modelling, performed on a computer, which is designed to predict the behaviour of, or the outcome of, a real-world or physical system ie Weather Forecasting
crowd sourcing
involves obtaining work, information, or opinions from a large group of people
BIG DATA
- Data that is so large, fast or complex that it’s difficult or impossible to process using traditional methods.
- Benefits and limitations
- amount and type of data stored
- speed at which new data is generated
- trustworthiness of the data
- ways data can be use
Advantages include improved decision making, reduced costs, increased productivity and enhanced customer service. Disadvantages include cybersecurity risks, talent gaps and compliance complications
