Chapter 2 - Psychology As A Science

Question 0

The scientific method relies on which process of logical reasoning derived from philosophy?

Answer 0

Deductive reasoning: reasoning proceeding from broad basic principles applied to specific situations.

Example: Pythagorean theorem.

Question 1

What are 2 essential beliefs science is built on?

Answer 1

1. The universe operates according to certain natural laws.

2. Such laws are discoverable and testable.

Question 2

What flaw in deductive reasoning did Sir Francis Bacon drew attention to?

Answer 2

Thinker’s biases: distorted beliefs based on a person’s subjective sense of reality.

Example: people believe in individualism but act according to collectivism.

Question 3

To avoid bias, which reasoning process did Sir Francis Bacon recommend?

Answer 3

Inductive reasoning: reasoning process proceeding from small specific situations to more general truths.

Question 4

Psychologists using inductive reasoning would make _____ observations of mental processes and behaviours, which would lead them to develop _____.

Answer 4

Empirical: to be tested in objective ways.

Theories: ideas about the laws that govern mental processes and behaviour (phenomena).

Question 5

Today, psychologists utilize a blended model between deductive and inductive reasoning known as _____.

Answer 5

Hypothetico-deductive reasoning: process of modern science where scientists begin with an educated guess about how the world works, and then set about designing small controlled observations to support or invalidate that hypothesis.

Question 6

To test the soundness of their theories, researchers create _____.

Answer 6

Hypotheses: specific statements (a general statement about the way variables relate) that is/are objectively falsifiable.

Can be disproven.

Question 7

What four steps are involved in a scientific approach?

Answer 7

1. Make observation.
2. Develop hypothesis.
3. Test hypothesis.
4. Build a theory.

Question 8

What is the difference between deductive, inductive, and hypothetico-deductive reasoning?

Answer 8

Deductive: theory > predictions > observation/experiment.
Inductive: observation/experiment > predictions > theory.
Hypothetico-deductive: hypothesis > observation/experiment > hypothesis supported or not supported, theory built.

Question 9

What is the idea behind psychological research?

Answer 9

To isolate the relative contribution of factors and think about how these factors come together to influence behaviour.

Question 10

What are the 6 stow psychologists follow in conducting research?

Answer 10

1. Identify questions of interest and review the literature.
2. Develop a testable hypothesis (operationally defined).
3. Select a research method, choose participants, collect data.
4. Analyze the data and accept/reject hypothesis.
5. Seek scientific js review, publish, replicate.
6. Build a theory.

Question 11

Hypotheses involve _____.

Answer 11

Variables: condition, event or situation that is studied in an experiment.

Question 12

What is a condition/event that is thought to be a factor in changing another condition/event?

Answer 12

Independent variable.

Question 13

What is a condition/event that you expect to change as a result of variations in the independent variable?

Answer 13

Dependent variable.

Question 14

Developing very precise definitions of the independent and dependent variables that allow you to measure and test them is known as?

Answer 14

Operationalize.

Question 15

What is a group of people studied in an experiment, used to stand in for an entire group of people.

Answer 15

A sample.

Question 16

Researchers prefer to obtain their samples through _____.

Answer 16

Random selection: identifying a sample in such a way that everyone in the population of interest has an equal chance of being involved in the study.

Minimize sampling bias.

Question 17

What are the 2 research methods?

Answer 17

Descriptive: case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys.
Observe, collect, record data (descriptive).
+ developing early ideas! reflects actual behaviour, easy to collect data.
- little/no control on variables biases, can’t explain cause and effect.

Experimental: manipulation, control of variables.
Identify cause and effect (explanation).
+ precise control of variables, identify cause and effect.
- ethical concerns, practical limits, artificial lab condition, confounding variables, bias.

Question 18

What are descriptive research methods?

Answer 18

Studies that allow researchers to demonstrate a relationship between the variables of interest, without specifying a causal relationship.

Question 19

Medical and psychological practitioners who treat people with problems often conduct _____ to help determine whether therapeutic interventions affect their client’s symptoms.

Answer 19

Case studies: a study focusing on a single person.

Question 20

What are the advantages and disadvantages to conducting case studies?

Answer 20

+ developing early ideas about phenomena.

• researcher bias.
• can’t generalize to other situations (norm vs. acceptance).

Question 21

What is a naturalistic observation?

Answer 21

A study in which researchers directly observe people in a study behaving as they normally would.

Question 22

What are the advantages and disadvantages in conducting naturalistic observations?

Answer 22

+ more reflective of human behaviour.

• researcher bias.
• change in behaviour due to presence of researcher/camera.

Question 23

What is the Hawthorne effect?

Answer 23

Changes at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric (near Chicago) led to increase in productivity.

People who are being observed in their studies/workplace will improve or change some of their behaviour simply because they are being watched or studied, not in response to an environmental manipulation.

Question 24

What are two ways to minimize the disadvantages to conducting naturalistic observation?

Answer 24

1. Multiple observers: not informed of the hypothesis (limiting opportunities for bias). 2. Become part of the setting so presence does not disrupt natural behaviour.

Question 25

What is another (3rd) descriptive approach used in psychological research? List specific examples of using this method.

Answer 25

Surveys: a study in which researchers give participants a questionnaire or interview them. Example: in-person, telephone, e-mail, written.

Question 26

What are the advantages and disadvantages to conducting surveys?

Answer 26

+ obtain information that would be difficult to gather in case studies and naturalistic observation. + gauge the intensity of the relationship between the two variables of interest. - participant bias (responding in socially accepted ways). - subject bias/unaware participant (not mindful). - can't tell direction of relationship.

Question 27

If you want to know what causes what, you would perform an _____.

Answer 27

Experiment: controlled situation in which researchers manipulate the presence or amount of the independent variable to see what effect it has on the dependent variable.

Question 28

A way of experimentally testing a proposed hypothesis is by dividing the sample in to 2 groups: _____ and _____.

Answer 28

1. Experimental group: the group that is exposed to the independent variable. 2. Control group: the group that has not been/will not be exposed to the independent variable.

Question 29

Higher level experiments often include multiple independent variables which allows researchers to look for _____.

Answer 29

Interaction effects. Example: aggressive behaviour resulting from watching small amounts of hockey vs. watching a lot of hockey.

Question 30

How can a researcher reduce/avoid creating a demand characteristic?

Answer 30

Utilizing double-blind procedures, a study in which neither participant or researcher knows what treatment or procedure the participant is receiving.

Question 31

Psychologists use _____ to describe and measure relationships between variables.

Answer 31

Statistics.

Question 32

What is a correlation?

Answer 32

A predictable relationship between 2 or more variables.

Question 33

What is a correlation coefficient?

Answer 33

A statistic expressing the strength and nature of a relationship between two variables.

Question 34

When two variables increase together, we refer to this relationship as a _____.

Answer 34

Positive correlation.

Question 35

When one variable increases while another decreases, we refer to this relationship as a _____.

Answer 35

Negative correlation.

Question 36

A correlation of -1.00 or +1.00 is called a _____.

Answer 36

Perfect correlation: one in which the variable's scores are always perfectly related. One score rises or falls in direct proportion to the changes in the other variable.

Question 37

What is the alternative term for descriptive research?

Answer 37

Correlational research.