chapter 2: the biological perspective Flashcards
(118 cards)
1
Q
nervous system
A
an extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body
2
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neuroscience
A
a branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue
3
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biological psychology / behavioral neuroscience
A
branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning
4
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neuron
A
the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives and sends messages within that system
5
Q
dendrites
A
branchlike structures of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons
dendrite means “tree-like” or “branch”
6
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soma
A
the cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of the cell
soma means “body”, attached to the dendrites
7
Q
axon
A
tubelike structure of a neuron that carries the neural message from the cell body to the axon terminals for communication with other cells
greek “axis”, attached to the soma
8
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axon terminals
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enlarged ends of axonal branches of the neuron, specialized for communication between cells
presypnatic terminals, terminal buttons, synaptic knobs
9
Q
glial cells
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cells that provide support for the neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons, influence information processing, and, during prenatal development, influence the generation of new neurons
10
Q
oligodendrocytes
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special type of glia that produces myelin for the central nervous system
11
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schwann cells
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special type of glia that produces myelin for the peripheral nervous system
12
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tracts
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bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together in the central nervous system
13
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nerves
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bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body
14
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nodes
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places where the myelin seems to bump, not covered in myelin
15
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ions
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charged particles in a semiliquid inside and outside of a cell
16
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diffusion
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process of molecules moving from areas of high concentration to low concentration
17
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electrostatic pressure
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the relative balance of electrical charges when the ions are at rest
18
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resting potential
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the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse
19
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action potential
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the release of the neural impulse, consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon
20
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all-or-none
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referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or doesn’t fire at all
21
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synaptic vesicles
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saclike structures found inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals
22
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neurotransmitters
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chemical found in the synaptic vesicles that, when released, has an effect on the next cell
23
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synapse
A
(synaptic gap) microscopic fluid-filled space between the axon terminal of one cell and the dendrites or soma of the next cell
24
Q
receptor sites
A
three-dimensional proteins on the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters
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excitatory synapse
synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire
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inhibitory synapse
synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing
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antagonist
chemical substance that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters
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agonists
chemical substance that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell
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serotonin (5-ht)
neurotransmitter originating in the lower part of the brain that can have excitatory & inhibitory effects
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glutamate
the nervous system's major excitatory neurotransmitter
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synaptic plasticity
the ability of the brain to change connections among its neurons
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gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
most common inhibitory transmitter in the brain
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acetylcholine (ACh)
excitatory or inhibitory; involved in arousal, attention, memory, and controls muscle contractions
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norepinephrine (NE)
mainly excitatory, involved in arousal & mood
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endorphins
inhibitory neural regulators; involved in pain relief
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reuptake
process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles
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enzymatic degradation
process by which the structure of a neurotransmitter is altered so it can no longer act on a receptor
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lesioning
insertion of a thin, insulated electrode into the brain through which an electrical current is sent, destroying the braincells at the tip of the wire
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electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)
temporary disruption or enhancement of the normal function of specific brain areas through electrical stimulation, then the study of resulting changes in behavior or cognition
40
deep brain stimulation (DBS)
a medical procedure where electrodes are implanted into specific areas of the brain to send electrical impulses. These impulses help regulate abnormal brain activity or disrupt problematic signals
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optogenics
a technique in neuroscience where scientists use light to control specific neurons in the brain that have been genetically modified to respond to it
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transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
application of magnetic pulses to the cortex using special copper wire coils
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repetitive TMS (rTMS)
longer lasting TMS stimulation
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transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
use of scalp electrodes to pass low amplitude direct current to the brain to change the excitability of cortical neurons below electrodes
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neuroimaging techniques
imaging of the brain's structure or/and of its funcitons
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mapping structure
allows imaging of the brain's structure while the person is alive
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computed tomography (CT)
brain-imaging method using computer-controlled x-rays of the brain
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magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain
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diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
images of white matter to investigate normal functions and disorders
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gray matter
outer areas consisting of neurons with unmyelinated axons
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white mater
fiber tracts consisting of myelinated axons
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electroencephalogram (EEG)
a recording of the electrical activity of large groups of cortical neurons just below the skull, most often using scalp electrodes
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event-related potentials (ERPs)
measurement of the response of the brain related to the stimulus event
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magnetoencephalography (MEG)
detection of small magnetic fields generated by the electrical activity of neurons
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positron emission tomography (PET)
brain-imaging method in which a radioactive sugar is injected into the subject and a computer complies a color-coded image of the brain activity
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functional MRI (fMRI)
MRI-based brain-imaging method that allows for functional examination of brain areas through changes in brain oxygenation
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near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
a functional brain-imaging method that measures brain activity by using infrared light to determine changes in blood oxygen levels in the braiin
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medulla
the first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, which is responsible for life-sustaining functions as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate
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pons
the larger swelling above the medulla that relays information from the cortex to the cerebellum, and the pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for general attention, alertness, and arousal
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cerebellum
part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movements and may have some cognitive functions
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limbic system
a group of several brains structures located primarily under the cortex and involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation
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thalamus
part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain, this structure relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area
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olfactory bulbs
two bulb-like projections of the brain located just above the sinus cavity and just below the frontal lobes that receive information from the olfactory receptor cells; smell
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hypothalamus
small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland, responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex
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hippocampus
curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the information of long-term declarative memories
| seahorse
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amygdala
brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and memory of fear
| almond
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cingulate cortex
part of brain located in the middle, above the corpus callosum; part of the limbic system and plays a key role in emotion, pain processing, decision-making, empathy, and regulating behavior
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cortex
outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input
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cerebrum
the upper part of the brain consisting of the two hemispheres and the structures that connect them
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cerebral hemispheres
the two sections of the cortex on the eft and right sides of the brain
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corpus callosum
thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres
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contralateral organization
each hemisphere is responsible for the opposite side of the body
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occipital lobe
section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the primary visual centers of the brain
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parietal lobes
sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, temperature, and body position
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somatosensory cortex
area of cortex at the front of the parietal lobes responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position
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temporal lobes
areas of the cortex located along the side of the brain starting just behind the temples, containing the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech
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frontal lobe
areas of the brain located in the front and top, responsible for higher mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech
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prefrontal cortex (PFC)
linked to executive functions; self-awareness, self-restraint, waking memory, time management, self-organization, emotional self-control
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motor cortex
rear section of the frontal lobe, responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system
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mirror neurons
neurons that fire when an animal or person performs an action and also when an animal or person observes that same action performed by another
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association areas
areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing
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broca's area
associated with the production of speech; allows a person to speak smoothly and fluently
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broca's aphasia
condition resulting from damage to broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly
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wernicke's aera
understanding of the meaning of words, comprehension of words and sentences
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wernicke's aphasia
condition resulting from damage to wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language
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spatial neglect
condition produced most often by damage to the parietal to be association areas of the right hemisphere, resulting n an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual field
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left hemisphere
controls the right hand, spoken language, written language, mathematical calculations, logical thought processes, analysis of detail, reading
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right hemisphere
controls the left hand, nonverbal, visual-spatial perception, music & artistic processing, emotional thought and recognition, pattern recognition, facial recognition
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handedness
tendency to use one hand for fine motor skills
90
central nervous system (CNS)
part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord
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brain
core of the nervous system, makes sense of information received from the senses, makes decisions, sends commands out to the muscles and rest of the body
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spinal cord
a long bundle of neurons that carries messages between the body and the brain and is responsible for very fast, lifesaving reflexes
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afferent neuron
(sensory) a neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system
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efferent neuron
(motor) a neuron that carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body
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interneuron
a neuron found at the center of the spinal cord that receives information from the afferent neurons and sends commands to the muscles through the efferent neurons. interneurons also make up the bulk of the neurons in the brain
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reflex arc
the connection of the afferent neurons to the interneurons to the efferent neurons, resulting in a reflex action
97
neuroplasticity
the ability within the brain to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma
98
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons; occurs primarily during the prenatal development but may also occur at lesser levels in some brain areas during adulthood
99
stem cells
special cells found in all the tissues body that are capable of becoming other cell types when those cells need to be replaced due to damage or wear and tear
100
epigenetics
the interaction between genes and environmental factors that influence gene activity; environmental factors include diet, lifestyle experiences, and physical surroundings
101
peripheral nervous system
all nerves and neurons that aren't contained in the brain and spinal cord but that run through the body itself
102
somatic nervous system
division of the PNS consisting of nerves that carry information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the voluntary muscles of the body
103
automatic nervous system
division of the PNS consisting of nerves that control all the involuntary muscles, organs, and glands
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sensory pathway
nerves coming from the sensory organs to the CNS consisting of afferent neurons
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motor pathway
nerves coming from the CNS to the voluntary muscles, consisting of efferent neurons
106
sympathetic division
(fight-or-flight system) also called the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal
107
parasympathetic division
(eat-drink-and-rest system) also called the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS), part of the ANS that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day-to-day functioning of the organs and glands
108
endocrine glands
glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream
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hormones
chemicals released into the bloodstream by the endocrine glands
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pituitary gland
gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences all other hormone-secreting glands (also known as the master gland)
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oxytocin
hormone released by the postier pituitary gland that is involved in reproductive and parental behaviors
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pinear gland
endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum; secretes melatonin
113
thyroid gland
endocrine gland found in the neck; regulates metabolism
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pancreas
endocrine gland; controls the levels of sugar in the blood
115
gonds
sex glands; secrete hormones that regulate sexual development and behavior as well as reproduction
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ovaries
the female gonds or sex glands
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testes
(testicles) the male gonds or sex glands
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adrenal glands
endocrine glands located on top of each kidney that secrete more than 30 different hormones to deal with stress, regulate salt intake, and provide a secondary source of sex hormones affecting the sexual changes that occur during adolescence
