Chapter 2: The Origins of Prosocial Behaviour Flashcards
(35 cards)
How did Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau differ in beliefs on prosocial behaviour?
Locke believed “tabula rosa”; we are all born blank slates and are affected completely by our environment
Hobbes believed “original sin”; children are born inherently bad and we will only help when there is something in it for us
Rousseau believed “innate purity”; we are born inherently good and are corrupted by society
What are some forms of studies that can be used to disentangle nature and nurture?
- Cross cultural studies; comparing humans in different environments
- Cross species studies; comparing humans and animals
- Behavioural genetics; comparing fraternal and identical twins
- Neonate studies; studying newborns
What was Darin’s theory? What are it’s problems?
“Survival of the fittest” animals and organisms that are more aggressive will have a better chance at survival and reproduction
People have used this theory to justify racism and dominance. But it can’t be accurate because some animals, such as prairie dogs, sacrifice themselves for their tribe.
Perhaps “fittest” means smartest and most socially skilled rather than strongest.
Explain kin selection theory.
Focuses on the actions of people who are genetically related. We have a favoritism for those who share our genes. It is not the survival of the organism that is critical in evolutionary success, but rather it is the survival of the gene. Probably what Darwin meant, but did not know about genes.
Why, according to kin selection theory, is sometimes worth saving family members than yourself?
It depends on the amount of genes that will be saved and if those genes can still be reproduced. Parents pass on 50% of their genes to each offspring, so if an altruistic father gives his life to insure the survival of at least two of his offspring and they are fertile, there is no net loss of his genes in the species.
ex. To save 3 siblings is more worthy than just saving yourself, saving yourself would result .5 genes being passed on with one off-spring while saving three siblings would result in 1.5 if each had one off-spring.
Describe Burnstein et al. “life-or-death” scenario experiment.
Participants are more likely to help:
- close kin than distant kin (siblings, vs. cousins)
- heathy relatives than sick ones
- younger relatives than older ones (being able to reproduce made the distinction between young and old)
This is maximizing inclusive fitness. If it is better to help a distant kin, because of the last two criteria, we will.
Give the definition of “inclusive fitness”.
Inclusive fitness is the successful transmission of an individual’s genes to a subsequent gene pool; concerns the number of copies of an individual’s genes that are present in the next generation.
According to Euler & Witzel which grand-parent is the most caring towards their grand-children?
The maternal grandmother; because she is the most certain that her grandchildren are carrying her genes. They have the most “parental certainty”.
What are the three evolutionary perspectives on altruism?
- Kin selection theory
- Reciprocal altruism
- Group selection theory
In reciprocal altruism, what is the “norm of reciprocity”
“I’ll scratch you back if you’ll scratch mine”, we are more likely to help when we know the favour can be returned.
This works better in small groups, and if one person is not contributing they will be excluded from the group.
What are symbiotic relationships? What symbiotic relationships do we see in the environment?
Symbiotic relationships are built on doing each other favours.
ex.
clownfish & anemone
vampire bats feed each other (but only if they do it mutually)
mutual grooming in baboons
Describe the Greenberg & Shapiro experiment on reciprocal helping.
Participants and confederate were given a hard “make-a-box” task “spot and circle typos” task.
All participants struggled with box task.
IV: confederate struggled with typo task or did not sruggle
DV: will participant ask for help on box task
- When there was an opportunity for the participant to offer help on the typo task, 71% asked for help
- When they were not able to reciprocate because the confederate was doing well, only 37% asked for help
What are neuroeconomic studies and what have they found on helping?
Neuroeconomic studies combines psychology, neuroscience and economics to study decisions. They have found that humans are sensitive to violations of fairness and decisions are often emotional, not always rational, and dependent on specific parts of the brain.
What are the findings of the “Ultimatum Game”?
A sender has $20 and can send any amount to the receiver, but the receiver must accept the offer for them to keep their money.
Utility theory says that the receiver should accept any amount of money, because even 5 cents is a profit.
However, most receivers will only accept when the sender sends $8 or more, we take pleasure in punishing those who violate fairness.
If a computer was the sender, then people would accept the unfair divide.
The right anterior insula is highly activated when responders reject unfair offer, this area of the brain is connected to pain, distress, anger, and disgust.
What is group selection theory?
Group selection theory is the idea that natural selection can operate at the group level. “Back-scratching” groups, such as bees and ants, are more likely to survive than selfish groups. Little research has been done in humans since most studies would be unethical.
When do children start showing prosocial tendencies (able to recognize good vs. bad)?
Infants at one day one will cry when they hear another infant crying.
Children as young as four months can empathize with others.
Hamlin & Wynn upwards of 80% of babies choose characters who are morally good and helpful rather than one who hinders others.
When will children start helping without being asked?
Warneken & Tomasello showed in several contexts, most 18-month olds realized experimenter needed help and spontaneously helped him.
The experimenter never asked for help, or rewarded the child for helping - they are helping because they want to and seem to enjoy it.
Do children show reciprocal altruism?
Yes. Dunfield & Kuhlmeier found toddlers are more likely to help someone who has made an effort to help them. One experimenter ignored the child while one played with the child, 75% of children helped the playful experimenter while only 25% helped the indifferent experimenter.
What is empathy and what are it’s affects?
Empathy is the sharing of another person’s emotions and feelings.
- Positive affective empathy: feelings of compassion and concern for unfortunate others
- Negative affective empathy: feelings of personal discomfort and distress in response to others’ distress
What is the heritability of empathy?
Heritability co-efficient of empathy is approx. .30-.50; meaning 30% of empathy found in people can be accounted for by genetics (this is low).
When is empathy developed?
- Strongly related to parental empathy, a strong concern for child’s feelings leads to empathy.
- Comes with self awareness (typically begins at age 1.5 to 2) and the ability to communicate
- Children respond to anger with distress, this continues through life with friendships and relationships
- Parents can model prosocial behaviour, such as giving to charity, donating, picking up garbage
- After a child helps, it is better to attribute helpful behaviour to altruistic motives rather than with big rewards; praise, hugs, and small rewards are most effective with children
What can empathy result in for a human?
Empathy can result in:
- Sympathy; feelings of sorrow or concern for another resulting in a higher chance for prosocial behaviour
- Personal distress; a self-focused emotional reaction to another person’s distress
What is the current conclusion for nature/nurture in relation to prosocial behaviour.
It is unlikely that there is a strand of DNA for prosocial behaviours, but rather it is a combination of genes interacting in a complex manner, which are influenced by the environment.
- Genes influence how people react to and act on the world around them, while their environment affects which genes will be “expressed”.
What can we conclude from a cross-cultural study?
If a behaviour is found consistent among cultures, it suggests the behaviour is critical to human survival and has some genetic basis.
