Chapter 23_AP2 Flashcards
Respiratory System
1
Q
What are the 5 functions of the respiratory system?
A
- Regulation of blood pH
- Production of chemical mediators
- Voice production
- Olfaction
- Protection
2
Q
Ventilation:
A
Movement of air into and out of lungs
3
Q
External respiration:
A
Gas exchange between air in lungs and blood
•Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood
4
Q
Internal respiration:
A
Gas exchange between the blood and tissues
5
Q
Upper tract:
A
nose, pharynx and associated structures
6
Q
Lower tract:
A
larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and the tubing within the lungs
7
Q
The nose consists of:
A
external nose and nasal cavity
8
Q
Nasal Cavity consists of:
A
divided by the nasal septum;
anterior vestibule contains hairs that trap debris;
lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium that traps debris and moves it to the pharynx
9
Q
Openings of the nasal cavity:
A
nares open to the outside, and the choanae lead to the pharynx;
paranasal sinuses and the nasolacrimal duct open into the nasal cavity
10
Q
Hard palate:
A
floor of nasal cavity
11
Q
Nasal septum:
A
partition dividing cavity; cartilage and bone
12
Q
Conchae:
A
bony ridges on lateral walls with meatuses between. Openings to paranasal sinuses and to nasolacrimal duct
13
Q
What are the functions of the nasal cavity?
A
- Passageway for air
- Cleans the air
- Humidifies, warms air
- Smell
- Along with paranasal sinuses are resonating chambers for speech
14
Q
Paranasal sinuses:
A
frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, and maxillary
15
Q
Where does the nasopharynx begin and where does it end?
A
joins the nasal cavity through the internal choanae
16
Q
What structures are found within the nasopharynx?
A
contains the openings to the auditory tube and the pharyngeal tonsils
17
Q
What type of tissue lines the nasopharynx?
A
pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells.
18
Q
Where does the oropharynx begin and where does it end?
A
shared with digestive system
19
Q
What structures are found within the oropharynx?
A
contains the palatine and lingual tonsils
20
Q
What type of tissue lines the oropharynx?
A
Lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium.
21
Q
Where does the laryngopharynx begin and where does it end?
A
epiglottis to esophagus
22
Q
What type of tissue lines the laryngopharynx?
A
Lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium
23
Q
Larynx
A
The cartilage within is connected by muscles and ligament; anchored by its connection to the hyoid bone and the
trachea.
24
Q
What is the opening within the larynx known as?
A
Vocal folds (vocal cords)
25
Thyroid cartilage:
largest, Adam’s apple
26
Cricoid cartilage:
most inferior, base of larynx
27
Epiglottis:
attached to thyroid and has a flap near base of tongue. Elastic rather than hyaline cartilage
28
Arytenoids:
attached to cricoid
29
Corniculate:
attached to arytenoids
30
Cuneiform:
contained in mucous membrane
31
Unpaired cartilage in the larynx:
Thyroid
Cricoid
Epiglottis
32
Paired cartilage in the larynx:
Arytenoid (2)
Corniculates (2)
Cuneiform (2)
33
What are the superior ligaments?
extend from the anterior surface of the arytenoid cartilages to the posterior surface of the thyroid cartilage;
34
How are the vestibular folds (false vocal cords) related to the
superior ligaments?
the superior ligaments are covered by a mucous membrane called the vestibular folds, or false vocal cords
35
How are the vocal fold (true vocal cords) related to the inferior
ligaments?
The inferior ligaments are covered by a mucous membrane called the vocal folds, or true vocal cords.The vocal folds and the opening between them are called the glottis. The vestibular folds and the vocal folds are lined with stratified squamous epithelium.
36
Functions of the larynx:
1. Maintain an open passageway for air movement:
2. Epiglottis and vestibular folds prevent swallowed material from moving into larynx
3. Vocal folds are primary source of sound production.
4. The pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium traps debris, preventing their entry into the lower respiratory tract.
37
True vocal cords or vocal folds:
sound production. Opening between is glottis
38
How are sound waves produced?
produced as the vocal folds vibrate when air passes through the larynx. Tightening the folds produces sounds of different pitches by controlling the length of the fold, which is allowed to vibrate.
39
How is the amplitude of sound (volume) controlled?
Greater the amplitude of vibration, louder the sound.
40
What is the relationship between frequency and pitch?
higher-frequency vibrations producing higher-pitched sounds and lower-frequency fibrations producing lower-pitched sounds
41
What changes in the in the vocal folds change the frequency of the
sound produced?
Variations in the length of the vibrating segments of the vocal folds affect the frequency of the vibrations. Higher-pitched tones are produced when only the anterior parts of the folds vibrate, and progressively lower tones result when longer sections of the folds vibrate
42
How are the length and tension of the vocal folds controlled?
Movement of the arytenoid and other cartilages is controlled by skeletal muscles, thereby changing the position and length of the vocal folds.
43
Why do males have lower pitched voices?
Because males usually have longer vocal folds than females.
44
Describe the anatomy and histology of the trachea.
connects the larynx to the main bronchi; Membranous tube of dense regular connective tissue and smooth muscle; supported by 15-20 hyaline cartilage C-shaped rings open posteriorly; divides to form left and right bronchi
45
Carina:
cartilage at bifurcation. Membrane especially sensitive to irritation and inhaled objects initiate the cough reflex
46
Explain how the Heimlich maneuver can be used to treat tracheal blockage:
are designed to force an object out of the air passage by the sudden application of pressure to the abdomen.
47
Explain how Intubation can be used to treat tracheal blockage:
a tube is passed through the mouth or nose into the pharynx and then through the larynx to the trachea.
48
Explain how a Tracheostomy can be used to treat tracheal blockage:
an operation performed to make an opening into the trachea, commonly between the second and third cartilage rings. Usually, the opening is intended to be permanent, and a tube is inserted into the trachea to allow airflow and provide a way to remove secretions.
49
Explain how a Cricothyrotomy can be used to treat tracheal blockage:
The preferred point of entry in emergency cases is through the membrane between the cricoid and thyroid cartilages
50
Right and left primary bronchi
Main bronchi
51
Secondary bronchi
Lobar bronchi
52
Tertiary bronchi
Segmental bronchi
53
Ventilation refers to the
movement of air into and out of the lungs.
54
Internal respiration refers to
gas exchange between the blood and body tissues
55
Whenever people cry, their nose runs. This is because the _____ drain tears into the nose.
nasolacrimal ducts
56
A molecule of air enters the nose through the external nares. What is the correct pathway to the trachea?
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea
57
What is the passageway for both air and food?
pharynx
58
The largest of the laryngeal cartilages is the
thyroid cartilage
59
The ring of cartilage that forms the base of the larynx is the
cricoid cartilage.
60
During swallowing, the opening into the larynx is covered by the
epiglottis
61
When air passes through the glottis, which structures vibrate to produce sound?
vocal folds (cords)
62
The pitch of the sound produced by the vocal cords is controlled by the
frequency of the vibrations
63
Each lobe of each lung is supplied by a
secondary bronchus
64
The diameter of bronchioles can change because their walls contain
smooth muscle
65
Gas exchange between the air in the lungs and the blood takes place in the
alveoli
66
Constriction of smooth muscle in the bronchioles does what?
restricts the flow of air into the lungs
67
Which of the following muscles increases the volume of the thorax during a normal inhalation?
1) diaphragm
2) external intercostals
3) internal intercostals
4) rectus abdominis
1) diaphragm
| 2) external intercostals
68
Expiration during quiet breathing occurs when:
the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax
69
Oxygenated blood is carried to the walls of the bronchi and tissues of the lungs via the
bronchial arteries
70
When the inspiratory muscles contract:
thoracic volume increases
71
For air to flow into or out of the lungs, there must be:
a pressure gradient established between the atmosphere and the alveoli.
72
During expiration, the alveolar pressure must be:
greater than atmospheric pressure.
73
Surfactant facilitates alveolar ventilation by
decreasing the surface tension between water molecules on the lining of the alveoli
74
Air in the pleural cavity is called
a pneumothorax
75
Mr. Huff and Puff exhales normally; then, using forced expiration, he exhales as much air as possible. The volume of air still remaining in his lungs is called
residual volume
76
Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged across the respiratory membrane by the process of
diffusion
77
Oxygen diffusion from the alveolus to the pulmonary capillary occurs because
alveolar PO2 is greater than capillary PO2
78
The Bohr effect refers to the
effect of pH on the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve
79
How does an increase in the acidity of the blood affect the ability of hemoglobin to bind oxygen?
As blood acidity increases, hemoglobin binds less oxygen
80
What is normal blood pH?
7.4
81
Most carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in the form of:
bicarbonate ions
82
The chloride shift refers to
the exchange of chloride ions for bicarbonate ions across the red blood cell membrane
83
If there is an accumulation of acidic products in the plasma, one would expect
an increase in respiration rate
84
The ventral respiratory group stimulates
the intercostal and abdominal muscles
85
After hyperventilating for several minutes, a person may develop short periods of apnea because
the level of CO2 decreases below the level necessary to stimulate the inspiratory center
86
The Hering-Breuer reflex
helps prevent overinflation of the lungs.
87
When one is exercising, their respiratory rate increases due to:
increased blood carbon dioxide levels stimulating the chemoreceptors
88
Expiratory Reserve Volume
The amount of air that can be forcefully expired after expiration of the normal tidal volume
89
Vital Capacity
Sum of the expiratory reserve, inspiratory reserve, and tidal volumes
90
Residual Volume
Volume of air remaining in lungs after the most forceful expiration
91
Total lung capacity
Sum of the inspiratory reserve, expiratory reserve, tidal, and residual volumes
92
layers of the respiratory membrane :
1. A thin layer of fluid lining the alveolus
2. The alveolar epithelium composed of simple squamous epithelium
3. The basement membrane of the alveolar epithelium
4. A thin interstitial space
5. The basement membrane of the capillary endothelium
6. The capillary endothelium, composed of simple squamous epithelium
93
What is the significance of the respiratory membrane?
It is the
| area where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged.
94
Tracheobronchial Tree
divides to form two main bronchi, which extend to the lungs. The main bronchi divide to form lobar bronchi, which divide to form segmental bronchi, which divide to form bronchioles, which divide to form terminal bronchioles.
95
2. The trachea to the terminal bronchioles is a passageway for
air movement
96
Gas exchange occurs between:
the respiratory bronchioles and the alveoli
97
5. The components of the respiratory membrane are:
a film of water, the walls of the alveolus and the capillary, and an interstitial space
98
Terminal bronchioles divide to form:
respiratory bronchioles, which give rise to alveolar ducts
99
Lungs
are divided into lobes, bronchopulmonary segments, and lobules
100
Respiratory zone:
site for gas exchange
101
Three types of cells in respiratory membrane:
1. Type I pneumocytes
2. Type II pneumocytes
3. Dust cells
102
Type I pneumocytes
Thin squamous epithelial cells, form 90% of surface of alveolus. Gas exchange.
103
Type II pneumocytes
Round to cube-shaped secretory cells. Produce surfactant
104
Dust cells
(phagocytes)
105
Anatomy of the lungs:
2; Base sits on diaphragm, apex at the top, hilus on medial surface where bronchi and blood vessels enter. All the structures in hilus called root
106
Right Lung:
three lobes. Lobes separated by fissures
107
Left Lung:
Two lobes, and an indentation called the cardiac notch
108
Lobes are supplied by:
secondary bronchi
109
lobules are supplied by:
bronchioles and separated by incomplete partitions
110
List the structures which form the thoracic wall.
•Thoracic vertebrae, ribs, costal cartilages, sternum and associated muscles; Thoracic cavity; Diaphragm
111
Thoracic cavity
space enclosed by thoracic wall and diaphragm
112
Diaphragm
separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity
113
Inspiration:
diaphragm, external intercostals, pectoralis minor, scalenes
114
Expiration:
muscles that depress the ribs and sternum: abdominal muscles and internal intercostals
115
Labored breathing:
all inspiratory muscles are active and contract more forcefully. Expiration is rapid
116
Pleural cavity
surrounds each lung and is formed by the pleural membranes. Filled with pleural fluid.
117
Visceral pleura:
adherent to lung. Simple squamous epithelium, serous.
118
Parietal pleura:
adherent to internal thoracic wall.
119
Pleural fluid:
acts as a lubricant and helps hold the two membranes close together (adhesion).
120
Mediastinum:
central region, contains contents of thoracic cavity except for lungs.
121
Two sources of blood to lungs:
Pulmonary artery & bronchial arteries
122
Where do the pulmonary arteries come from and what type of blood do they
carry?
brings deoxygenated blood to lungs from right side of heart to be oxygenated in capillary beds that surround the alveoli. Blood leaves via the pulmonary veins and returns to the left side of the heart.
123
Where do the pulmonary veins go and what type of blood do they carry?
Blood going to left side of heart via pulmonary veins carries primarily oxygenated blood, but also some deoxygenated blood from the supply of the walls of the conducting and respiratory zone.
124
Ventilation
Movement of air into and out of lungs;
| Air moves from area of higher pressure to area of lower pressure
125
Boyle’s Law:
P = k/V, where P = gas pressure, V = volume, k = constant at a given temperature
126
Lung recoil causes alveoli to collapse resulting from
Elastic recoil
| Surface tension
127
Elastic recoil:
elastic fibers in the alveolar walls
128
Surface tension:
film of fluid lines the alveoli. Where water interfaces with air, polar water molecules have great attraction for each other with a net pull in toward other water molecules. Tends to make alveoli collapse.
129
Surfactant:
Reduces tendency of lungs to collapse by reducing surface tension. Produced by type II pneumocytes
130
Respiratory distress syndrome (hyaline membrane disease).
Common in infants with gestation age of less than 7 months. Not enough surfactant produced.
131
Pneumothorax
an opening between pleural cavity and air that causes a loss of pleural pressure
132
Spirometry:
measures volumes of air that move into and out of respiratory system.
133
Tidal volume:
amount of air inspired or expired with each breath. At rest: 500 mL
134
Inspiratory reserve volume:
amount that can be inspired forcefully after inspiration of the tidal volume (3000 mL at rest)
135
Expiratory reserve volume:
amount that can be forcefully expired after expiration of the tidal volume (100 mL at rest)
136
Residual volume:
volume still remaining in respiratory passages and lungs after most forceful expiration (1200 mL)
137
Minute ventilation:
total air moved into and out of respiratory system each minute; tidal volume X respiratory rate
138
Respiratory rate (respiratory frequency):
number of breaths taken per minute
139
Diffusion of gases through the respiratory membrane depends upon four factors
1. Membrane thickness. The thicker, the lower the diffusion rate
2. Diffusion coefficient of gas (measure of how easily a gas diffuses through a liquid or tissue). CO2 is 20 times more diffusible than O2, surface areas of membrane, partial pressure of gases in alveoli and blood
3. Surface area. Diseases like emphysema and lung cancer reduce available surface area
4. Partial pressure differences. Gas moves from area of higher partial pressure to area of lower partial pressure. Normally, partial pressure of oxygen is higher in alveoli than in blood. Opposite is usually true for carbon dioxide
140
Shunted blood:
blood that is not completely oxygenated
141
Apnea.
Cessation of breathing.
142
Hyperventilation.
Causes decrease in blood PCO2 level.
143
Hypoxia:
decrease in oxygen levels below normal values
144
Hering-Breuer Reflex
Limits the degree of inspiration and prevents overinflation of the lungs
