Chapter 3: Human Growth and Development

Question 1

HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

The application of human growth and development theories to
the practice of counseling became popular in the 1980s. In 1981
CACREP included this as a core content area. In 1983 APGA (now ACA) changed its name to American Association for Counseling and Development to help emphasize the developmental aspects of our profession. Development is ongoing, systematic, orderly, sequential, and is said to build upon itself. The term continual implies that development occurs throughout the life span.

There is speculation as to whether individuals are active or passive in terms of influencing their development. Another issue centers on the nature or nurture debate. Is behavior the result of inborn tendencies/heredity (i.e., nature) or the environment (i.e., upbringing, nurture, and learning)? Current theorists insist it is both, but disagree on the amount of impact exerted.
The third arm may be fetal origins, referring to what happens to the fetus during gestation.

Changes can be quantitative (measured) or qualitative (change in organization or structure).

Many theorists stress the notion of critial periods(also called sensitive periods or all or nothing periods) where behavior or developmental process, for example, language or types of visual acuity, can be acquired; or it is nearly impossible to develop at a later time of life.

Ironically, young children have more neural connections than adults.

If genetics play such a role in development, why are children from the same family often so much different? The current notion is the same family is often so much different? The current notion is that shared experiences/influences (all family members attended the same family functions, went on identical vacations, etc.) have less impact than nonshared individual experiences/influences (siblings may have different teachers, friends, etc. ). Also, individuals may perceive the same event in totally different ways.

Question 2

MAJOR THEORIES AND THEORISTS

Behaviorism
Behaviorism was outlined by John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, Joseph
Wolpe, and B. F. Skinner. Initially, the mind is a blank slate and the child learns to behave in a certain manner. This is basically a passive theory. The mind is like a computer that is fed information. This model relies on empiricism—John Locke’s view that knowledge is acquired by experience. All behavior is the result of learning.

Question 3

Erik Erikson’s Eight Psychosocial Stages

Erikson’s stages are delineated in his classic 1963 work Childhood and Society.

The stages are based on ego psychology and the epigenetic principle that states that growth is orderly, universal, and systematic.

The stages are:

Trust versus mistrust (birth to age 11⁄2 years);

autonomy versus shame and doubt (11⁄2 to 3 years);

initiative versus guilt (3 to 6 years);

industry versus inferiority (6 to 11 years):

identity versus role confusion (12 to 18 years);

intimacy versus isolation (18 to 35 years);

generativity versus stagnation (35 to 60 years); and

integrity versus despair (age 65 and beyond).

Question 4

Jean Piaget’s Qualitative Four Stages of Cognitive Development (Genetic Epistemology)

Theory:

Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years);

Preoperational (2 to 7 years);

Concrete Operations (7 to 12 years); and

Formal Operations (11/12 to 16).

• Patterns of thought and behavior are called schema or the
  plural, schemata.
• Adaptation occurs qualitatively when the individual fits
  information into existing ideas (also known as assimilation) and modifies cognitive schemata to incorporate new information (this is called accommodation).
• Assimilation and accommodation are said to be complementary processes. The ages in the Piagetian stages can vary, the order is static.
• Object permanence occurs in the sensorimotor stage (an
  object the child can’t see still exists).
• Centration is the act of focusing on one aspect of something. It is a key factor in the preoperational stage.
• Conservation takes place in the concrete operations stage.
  The child knows that volume and quantity do not change, just because the appearance of an object changes (e.g., pouring a short glass of water into a tall skinny glass, does not alter the amount of the liquid). The child comprehends that a change in shape does not mean a change in volume.
• Abstract scientific thinking takes place in the formal operations
  stage.

Question 5

Keagan’s Constructive Developmental Model

Keagan’s model emphasizes the impact of interpersonal interaction
and our perception of reality.

Question 6

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Three Levels of Moral Development

Each level has two stages:

• preconventional level—behavior governed by consequences;
• conventional level—a desire to conform to socially acceptable rules;
• postconventional level—self-accepted
  moral principles guide behavior.

Question 7

Carol Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development for Women

Gilligan’s 1982 book In a Different Voice illuminated the fact that
Kohlberg’s research was conducted on males. Women have a sense of caring and compassion.

Question 8

Daniel Levinson Four Major Eras/Transitions Theory

In a 1978 classic book titled The Seasons of a Man’s Life Levinson
depicted the changes in men’s lives throughout the lifespan.

The four key eras include:

• childhood and adolescence,
• early adulthood,
• middle adulthood,
• and later adulthood.

Question 9

Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934)

Vygotsky proposed that cognitive development is not the result of innate factors, but is produced by activities that take place in one’s culture. His zone of proximal development refers to the difference in the child’s ability to solve problems on his own and his capacity to solve them with some help from others.

Question 10

Freud’s Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Five Psychosexual Stages

Freud’s stages are:

• oral (birth to one year),
• anal (1 to 3 years),
• phallic/ Oedipal Electra complex (3 to 7 years),
• latency (3 to 5 until age 12), and
• genital (adolescence and adulthood).

Libido is the drive to live and the sexual instinct that is present
even at birth. It is said to be sublimated in the latency stage as the
individual has little interest in sex. This ends when puberty begins.

• Regression is the return to an earlier stage caused by stress.
• Fixation implies that the person is unable to move to the next stage.
• Freud is criticized for focusing on sex and not including the
  entire lifespan in his theory.

Question 11

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow interviewed self-actualized people. Lower-order physiological and safety needs must be fulfilled before self-actualization can occur.

Question 12

• *William Perry’s Three Stage Theory of Intellectual**
• *and Ethical Development in Adults/College Students**

Dualism in which students view the truth as either right or wrong.
Relativism is the notion that a perfect answer may not exist. There is
a desire to know various opinions. Commitment to relativism—in
this final stage the individual is willing to change his or opinion based
on novel facts and new points of view.

Question 13

• *James W. Fowler’s Prestage Plus Six Stage Theory of Faith**
• *and Spiritual Development**

Fowler conducted 350 structured interviews and drew on the work of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson.

Stage 0 undifferentiated (primal) faith (infancy, birth to 4 years);

Stage 1 intuitive-projective faith (2 to 7 years, early childhood);

Stage 2: mythic-literal faith (childhood and beyond);

Stage 3: synthetic-conventional faith (adolescence and beyond) a stage of conformity);

Stage 4: individuative-reflective faith (young adulthood and beyond);

Stage 5: conjunctive faith (mid-thirties and beyond) openness to other points of view, paradox, and appreciation of symbols and metaphors; and

Stage 6: universalizing faith (midlife and beyond) few reach this stage of enlightenment.

• According to Fowler faith is not identical with one’s belief in religion. “Faith can be religious faith, but it can also be centered on a career, a country, an institution, a family, money, success, or even oneself.” Faith grows and changes throughout the lifespan.

Question 14

Diana Baumrind’s Typology of parenting styles

Authoritative: High expectations for the child, but is warm and hurting. The child is given an explanation of the rules. Generally produces a child who is happy, does well in school, has good emotional regulation, and fine social skills.

Authoritarian: characterized by bossy parenting which champions “follow my orders” with no explanation. Punishment and verbal insults are used liberally. Can produce anxious, withdrawn children who are likely to engage in antisocial behavior including alcohol and drug abuse, stealing, and gang activities.

Permissive Passive Indulgent: parent has a low level of control and is easily manipulated. Rarely says “no” to a child and is nonpunitive. Very affectionate and wished to please the child like a friend. Child can display a lot of social skills, boundaries, and can be extremely demanding. Children often use drugs and alcohol.

Question 15

Teen Pregnancy

Although the number of teen pregnancies is declining, the US still sports the higher rate of any industrialized nation. Both moms and kids have more difficulties such, as preeclampsia (very high blood pressure during pregnancy), prenatal addiction, children with low birth rates, and children who are delinquent and have mental health and addiction issues. Children born to teen moms are statistically more likely to become teen moms themselves.

Family therapy appears to be the best treatment of choice for those with eating disorders.