Chapter 4

Question 1

convergent boundaries

Answer 1

Convergent boundaries are locations where two tectonic plates are moving towards each other. These boundaries can result in the formation of mountains, volcanic activity, and the creation of oceanic trenches.

Question 2

divergent boundaries

Answer 2

Divergent boundaries are locations where two tectonic plates are moving away from each other. These boundaries can result in the formation of rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges, and volcanic activity.

Question 3

transform boundaries

Answer 3

Transform boundaries are locations where two tectonic plates are sliding past each other. These boundaries can result in the formation of earthquakes and faults.

Question 4

weathering

Answer 4

Weathering is the process by which rocks and other materials are broken down by exposure to the elements. This can happen through mechanical or chemical means.

Question 5

deposition

Answer 5

Deposition is when sediment, soil, and other materials are dropped in a new location by wind, water, or ice.

Question 6

soil formation

Answer 6

Soil formation is a natural process that occurs over time as rocks and minerals are broken down by weathering, and organic matter such as dead plants and animals decompose. Soil formation is influenced by a variety of factors, including climate, topography, vegetation, and the presence of living organisms. The resulting soil is composed of a mixture of mineral particles, organic matter, water, and air, and can vary widely in composition and quality depending on the local conditions.

Question 7

composition

Answer 7

Soil is composed of a mixture of mineral particles, organic matter, water, and air. The specific composition of soil can vary widely depending on factors such as the local climate, topography, and vegetation.

Question 8

organic parent material

Answer 8

Organic parent material is any type of dead plant or animal matter that has decomposed and become part of the soil. This organic matter can include leaves, twigs, roots, and other plant material, as well as animal remains such as bones and shells. The presence of organic parent material in soil can have a significant impact on its composition and fertility, as it can provide important nutrients and help to retain moisture.

Question 9

chaparral

Answer 9

Chaparral is a type of vegetation that is found in areas with a Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Chaparral typically consists of a variety of evergreen shrubs and small trees, and is adapted to survive in environments with limited water resources. Chaparral is an important habitat for a variety of wildlife species, and is also valued for its recreational and aesthetic qualities.

Question 10

percolation

Answer 10

Percolation is how water moves through soil and rock layers underground. It happens when rainwater moves through the soil and rock, and eventually ends up in underground aquifers. The rate of percolation depends on factors like soil composition, rainfall, and topography.

Question 11

infiltration

Answer 11

Infiltration is the process by which water enters the soil surface from the ground level. It happens when rainwater or surface water seeps into the soil, and is absorbed by the soil particles. The rate of infiltration depends on factors like soil type, vegetation cover, and the intensity of rainfall. Infiltration is an important process that helps to replenish groundwater resources and maintain soil moisture levels.

Question 12

Sand

Answer 12

Sand particles are the largest, and are typically between 0.05 and 2 millimeters in diameter.

Question 13

Silt

Answer 13

Silt particles are smaller than sand particles, and are typically between 0.002 and 0.05 millimeters in diameter.

Question 14

Clay

Answer 14

Clay particles are the smallest, and are typically less than 0.002 millimeters in diameter.

Question 15

Sand, Silt and Clay

Answer 15

Sand, silt, and clay are the three primary types of soil particles. The proportion of sand, silt, and clay in soil can have a significant impact on its properties, including its texture, structure, and water-holding capacity. Soils with high proportions of sand are typically well-drained and have low water-holding capacity, while soils with high proportions of clay are typically poorly-drained and have high water-holding capacity.

Question 16

porosity

Answer 16

Porosity measures the amount of open space in a material, like soil or rock. It’s expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the material. High porosity means more open space and the material can hold more water or air. Low porosity means less open space and the material can hold less water or air.

Question 17

Fertility

Answer 17

Fertility is a measure of the ability of soil to support plant growth. It is influenced by factors such as the availability of nutrients, organic matter content, and pH level. Soils that are highly fertile are able to support a wide range of plant species and produce high yields of crops. Fertility can be improved through practices such as adding organic matter, applying fertilizers, and adjusting soil pH.

Question 18

soil texture triangle

Answer 18

The soil texture triangle is a graphic that shows the proportions of sand, silt, and clay in a soil sample. It’s used to classify soils into different texture classes based on the percentage of each particle size. The point where the three lines intersect indicates the texture class of the soil.

Question 19

Atmospheric layers

Answer 19

The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into five layers: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. Each layer has different characteristics and functions.

Question 20

troposphere

Answer 20

The troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, where weather occurs and humans live. It extends from the Earth’s surface to an altitude of about 7 to 20 kilometers. The troposphere contains most of the Earth’s air and is where temperature decreases with altitude. It is also where clouds and precipitation form.

Question 21

stratosphere

Answer 21

The stratosphere is the second layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, located above the troposphere. It extends from about 20 to 50 kilometers above the Earth’s surface. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which protects the Earth from harmful UV radiation. The temperature in the stratosphere increases with altitude, which is opposite of the troposphere.

Question 22

mesosphere

Answer 22

The mesosphere is the third layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, located above the stratosphere. It extends from about 50 to 85 kilometers above the Earth’s surface. The mesosphere is the layer where meteors burn up upon entering the atmosphere. The temperature in the mesosphere decreases with altitude, which is similar to the troposphere.

Question 23

thermosphere

Answer 23

The thermosphere is the fourth layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, located above the mesosphere. It extends from about 85 kilometers to the edge of space. The thermosphere is the layer where the Northern and Southern Lights occur. The temperature in the thermosphere increases with altitude, which is opposite of the mesosphere.

Question 24

exosphere

Answer 24

The exosphere is the outermost layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, located above the thermosphere. It extends from the edge of space to about 10,000 kilometers above the Earth’s surface. The exosphere is the layer where satellites orbit the Earth. The air in the exosphere is very thin and the temperature can reach thousands of degrees Celsius due to the Sun’s radiation.

Question 25

Temperature gradients

Answer 25

Temperature gradients refer to the change in temperature with respect to distance or altitude. The troposphere and mesosphere have a negative temperature gradient, while the stratosphere and thermosphere have a positive temperature gradient.

Question 26

Coriolis Effect

Answer 26

The Coriolis Effect is a phenomenon that causes fluids and objects, like air and water, to curve as they travel across the Earth's surface. The Coriolis Effect is caused by the Earth's rotation. In the Northern Hemisphere, fluids and objects curve to the right, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they curve to the left. The Coriolis Effect is responsible for the rotation of hurricanes and the direction of ocean currents.

Question 27

Hadley Cells

Answer 27

Hadley cells are a pattern of atmospheric circulation that occurs in the tropics. They are caused by the Earth's rotation and the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the Sun. The Hadley cell is responsible for the trade winds and the monsoon climate.

Question 28

Ferrel (Mid-Latitude) Cells

Answer 28

Ferrel cells are a pattern of atmospheric circulation that occurs in the mid-latitudes. They are caused by the interaction between the Hadley and Polar cells. The Ferrel cell is responsible for the westerlies, which are the prevailing winds that blow from west to east in the mid-latitudes.

Question 29

Polar Cells

Answer 29

Polar cells are a pattern of atmospheric circulation that occurs in the polar regions. They are caused by the sinking of cold, dense air at the poles. The Polar cell is responsible for the polar easterlies, which are the prevailing winds that blow from east to west in the polar regions.

Question 30

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) phenomena

Answer 30

The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a belt of low pressure that circles the Earth near the Equator. It is caused by the convergence of the trade winds from the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The ITCZ is characterized by heavy rainfall and thunderstorms, and it shifts north or south of the Equator depending on the season. The ITCZ is an important factor in the global climate and weather patterns, and it has a significant impact on agriculture, water resources, and transportation in affected regions.

Question 31

Divide or ridge

Answer 31

A divide or ridge is a high point or line that separates two different drainage basins. It is the boundary line between two watersheds, where water flows in different directions. A divide or ridge can be a mountain range, a hill, or even a small rise in the terrain. The direction of the flow of water on either side of the divide or ridge depends on the elevation and slope of the surrounding land.

Question 32

slope

Answer 32

Slope is a measure of how steep a surface is. It is the ratio of the vertical change in elevation to the horizontal distance over which the change occurs.

Question 33

headwaters

Answer 33

Headwaters are the source or beginning of a river or stream, usually located in mountainous areas.

Question 34

tributary

Answer 34

A tributary is a smaller river or stream that flows into a larger river or body of water, adding water and nutrients to the main river.

Question 35

riparian zone

Answer 35

A riparian zone is the area next to a river or body of water that is influenced by the water, providing habitat for plants and animals, filtering pollutants, and stabilizing the banks.

Question 36

treated sewage discharge

Answer 36

Treated sewage discharge is releasing treated wastewater from a sewage treatment plant into a river or other body of water. It removes harmful pollutants, but still contains nutrients that can harm the ecosystem.

Question 37

rain shadow effect

Answer 37

The rain shadow effect is when moist air rises over a mountain range, releasing its moisture as precipitation on the windward side, and creating a drier climate on the leeward side. It creates distinct ecosystems on either side of the mountain range.

Question 38

El Niño year

Answer 38

An El Niño year is a period of time when the surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean near the equator becomes unusually warm, which can have significant impacts on global weather patterns. During an El Niño year, the trade winds that blow from east to west across the Pacific weaken, causing warm water to move eastward and cool water to rise to the surface in the western Pacific. This can cause changes in atmospheric pressure and wind patterns, leading to droughts, floods, and other extreme weather events in different parts of the world. El Niño years typically occur every two to seven years and can last for several months to a year or more.

Question 39

La Niña year

Answer 39

A La Niña year is a period of time when the surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean near the equator becomes unusually cool, which can also have significant impacts on global weather patterns. During a La Niña year, the trade winds that blow from east to west across the Pacific become stronger, pushing warm water to the western Pacific and causing cool water to rise to the surface in the eastern Pacific. This can also cause changes in atmospheric pressure and wind patterns, leading to droughts, floods, and other extreme weather events in different parts of the world. La Niña years typically occur after an El Niño and can last for several months to a year or more.