Chapter 4- Issues And Debates (paper 3) Flashcards

Question

What were the findings? What traits appear to be inherited?

Answer 1

Intelligence and language development (phonic tests) Genetics huge in education

Answer 2

The twins in the sample in the TEDS study are reaching adulthood, this is useful because it starts to allow researchers to: -entering emerging adulthood period-transition from education to work + family- elongated due to demographic changes, no longer simply leave education and get jobs for life. They can look at the twins own children and the predictors from the past. Can compare their children’s results to when they were the same age, this can open up new discussions Also gaining more access eg: genotyping machines- 30 minutes to get results Data collection more efficient and more detailed, can go down to bottom line of genetics- more specific

Answer 3

Unique- provide a natural experimental design- 2 types, identical and non-identical. Distinction can help comparison- can identify the level of genetic influence.

Answer 4

Vary depend on values eg: Finnish model Get more publicly- raise awareness Not environmental or genetic- hard to implicate More then 500 papers- Plomin- more understanding Personal educational system due to genetics differences MORE VIDEO NOTES IN BOOKLET

Answer 5

This evaluation is just summarised- example PEELS with ALL the information is in booklet however this does contain the KEY information and terminology !! TEDS- huge sample and longitudinal research, range of research eg: questionnaires to swab tests Managed to look at heredity to specific traits like intelligence Generalisability 60% of differences between children is due to genetics 70% phonics heritable

Answer 6

Application Treatments for phobias eg: systematic desensitisation Mental disorders like OCD eg: drug therapy, genes linked with serotonin and environment- drugs can increase serotonin levels meaning transmission of mood- related information takes place

Answer 7

Insight into how NN interacts, expressed in Scarr and McCartney’s research and the diathesis stress model Adds external validity to debate Demonstrates varied and complex Benefits for society Explanatory power- crime, development, mental illness Treatments eg: diathesis stress model lead to drugs and CBT to treat things like OCD Good application

Answer 8

Not all twin studies are effective eg: TEDS needs huge amounts of funding and staff Need more twins studies as big all research follows participants over time (longitudinal) and don’t have large samples needed-money Also requires technology which may not always be accessible, which may limit the amount of research they can do and being able to collect data efficiently

Answer 9

Too simplistic Need to look at how NN interact eg: attachment More evidence- Tienari et al Lacks validity Interactionist approach gives more insight

Answer 10

Does not help in trying to find the root cause of certain behaviours eg: psychopaths having different brain structures- more necessary to view genetics separately

Answer 11

Idiographic approches think that individuals are unique. The research methods reflect this and look at a person’s subjective emotions and experiences. Methods like case studies and in depth interviews lead to qualitative data. This is more difficult to analyse with statistics because it is more descriptive. By looking for more in-depth insight in individuals, idiographic approaches can be seen as more holistic, looking at a range of factors to form a complete view of the person.

Answer 12

Nomothetic approaches aim to formulate general laws to explain behaviour similarities in large numbers of people. Nomothetic research gives statistical norms for comparison. Research uses large samples and quantitative methods eg: experiment to collect data that is easier to submit to statistical analysis. Nomothetic approches and explanations are more in line with science and are more reductionist

Answer 13

1) Humanist (Maslow and Rogers): - these researchers take a phenomenological approach and focus on the individual’s conscious experience of self - theorists in this field describe themselves as anti-scientific - concepts used include the hierarchy of needs and person-centred therapy 2) Freud’s psychodynamic Approach: - a case study described a 5 year old boy with a fear of being bitten by a horse - this was thought to stem from the boy seeing a horse collapse and die in the street - this was interpreted as the boy’s fear of being castrated by his father (because the boy loved his mother)

Answer 14

Radford and Kirby (1975)-Types of Law made by nomothetic approaches: 1) Classifying people into groups eg:DSM 2) Establishing dimensions that can be used to assess people and compare them eg:Use of the normal distribution curve 3) Establishing principles of behaviour that can be applied to people in general eg: Behaviourism like attachment or acquiring phobias Biological approach eg: - Tulving used PET scans to locate episodic and semantic memories in different parts of prefrontal cortex - biological explantations and treatment of OCD looking at neurotransmitters eg: serotonin and dopamine

Answer 15

Attachment and Koluchová Twins Approches- humanism (Explanation in booklet)

Answer 16

Attachment- learning theory Psychopathology-DSM, drug treatments for OCD Memory- MSM (Multi-store model)

Answer 17

Both idiographic and nomothetic approaches are used in research to give insight into a topic Researchers choose methods to suit a particular area eg: case studied and detailed interviews can be appropriate for studying sensitive issues like addiction Idiographic case studies can link with nomothetic approaches in different ways eg: - case studies can identify details that challenge what a general nomothetic theory says - Case studies can identify particular details suitable for further nomothetic research to make general laws about groups of people

Answer 18

They complement each other and can be used to give a fuller explanation and understanding of behaviour Attachment- case studies like Genie and the Kulochova Twins have added detailed insight. This detailed insight is used as well as Bowlby’s theory to understand factors that affect development Psychodynamic approach- idiographic case studied are used to make general (nomothetic) laws about behaviour eg: many people use defence mechanisms, the unconscious has an important role influencing behaviour. The psychosexual stages of development are general laws about development, but a person may have individual different experiences so develop differently Memory- idiographic case studies include eg: HM and KF. These hell illustrate the nature and function of short term memory. -Miller’s nomothetic work on the STM capacity suggests a limited of 7+/-2 units that is a general law that assumes many people are similar

Answer 19

A strength of taking an idiographic approach is the type of data collected. By using more qualitative methods eg: case studied and in-depth interviews, researchers gather rich and subjective information about the individuals experience. This information provides detailed insight about a person and allows researchers to explore issues in greater depth. This is useful for identifying new research questions and challenging established theories. Because it is more detailed the data has greater validity Therefore idiographic approaches make useful contribution to psychological understanding

Answer 20

One strength is the type of data collected By using quantitative methods eg: the experiment or large scale surveys, researchers gather objective data from many people This data can be analysed using statistics to identify trends and patterns This adds insight into a range of areas in psychology eg: the function of cognitive processes or effectiveness of drugs This gives nomothetic approaches good generalisability. Therefore, the data collected contributes to the formulation of theories and general laws

Answer 21

In terms of application, nomothetic approaches are stronger and use general laws in different ways. This had led to useful applications in more than one area eg: DSM for classification of mental illness, the normal distribution curve for assessment of IQ, and the formulation of theories eg: learning theory and biological explanations of behaviour

Answer 22

Look at PEEL in notes

Answer 23

An argument or theory which purposes that it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts (which is reductionist)

Answer 24

The belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller constituent parts

Answer 25

Attempts to explain social and psychological phenomena at a lower biological level eg: genes, hormones

Answer 26

Attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus- response links that have been learned though experience

Answer 27

Basis of holism, inappropriate to break up behaviour/ experience as you can only understand a person/ behaviour as a whole eg: shared with humanistic psychologists who see the whole person

Answer 28

Parsimony. That all phenomena should be understood at most basic principles. Often the most simple, easy and economical explanation

Answer 29

Different ways of viewing the same phenomena eg: - OCD could be understood in a socio-cultural context eg: repetitive hand washing, the most people would regard as odd or irrational. It could also be seen from a psychological level eg: obsessive thoughts, a physical level eg: sequence of movements in hand washing... It’s a debate on best explanation, each is more reductionist Psychology can be placed within a hierarchy of science eg: more precise and ‘micro’ disciplines at the bottom to more general ‘macro at the top’ Those who believe in the reductionist approach would see it as being derived from sciences lower down in the hierarchy

Answer 30

Organisms made up psychological structures and processes. All behaviour is at some level biological eg: neurochemical, evolutionary and genetic influences Links to biological approach and links to things such as the effects of psychoactive drugs and can explain serious disorders like OCD, depression and schizophrenia at a biochemical level

Answer 31

The behaviourist approach is built on environmental reductionism eg: breaking learning up into stimulus- response links that are measurable in a lab Key analysis works at a physical level rather than psychological/ cognitive level Regarded as a ‘black box’- irrelevant in understanding behaviour John Watson (behaviourist) spoke of it as ‘sub-vocal’ speech, characterised by physical movement like any other behaviour

Answer 32

1) Aspects of social behaviour that only merge within a group context and can’t be understood at an individual level eg: effects of conformity to social roles and the de-individuation of the prisoners and guards. This can’t be studied by looking at the participants as individuals. The interaction between people and behaviour of the group was important. 2) They provide more of a complete and global understanding of behaviour than reductionist approaches

Answer 33

1) Not much rigorous, scientific testing and can become vague and speculative as they become more complex eg: humanistic psychology- lack of empirical evidence 2) Practical dilemma eg: if there are loads of explanations for depression it is difficult to establish which is most influential and which one to use eg: in therapy. Therefore it is hard to find solutions for real world problems

Answer 34

Forms basis of scientific research In order to operationalise it is necessary to break behaviours into parts. This means it’s possible to conduct experiments or record observations (behaviour categories) in a way that is meaningful and reliable Demonstrates how complex learning can be broken down into simple stimulus- response links within the lab More credibility, placed on equal terms with natural sciences lower in the reductionist hierarchy

Answer 35

Accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena- leads to a loss of validity Explanations of the gene, neurotransmitter or neutron do not include the social context within which the behaviour occurs and this is where the behaviour may derive its meaning Although the psychological process may be the same regardless of the context it does explain why that behaviour has occurred Therefore reductionist explanations can only ever form one part of an explanation

Answer 36

Eg: diathesis stress model. Takes an interactionist stance- now different labels of the explanation may combine and interact. Can provide a move multi-disciplinary and holistic approach to treatment eg: combining drugs and family therapy- lower relapse rates

Answer 37

Smith et al did an experiment to challenge Watson’s idea of ‘sub-vocal’ speech. He ingest curare (poison) causing all his muscles to become paralysed. This was to see if thinking is merely sub-vocal speech then preventing any speech movements at all should make it impossible to think Smith was kept alive using an artificial oxygen supply but he was still able to recall and solve cognitive puzzles even in a state of paralysis Contradicts Watson’s theory it demonstrates you do not need physical movements to shape the process of thoughts . As he thought the process of thought itself was characterised by physical movements

Answer 38

Wolfgang Köhler (1925) set Hungary chimpanzees a puzzle. A banana and stick were placed outside the chimpanzee’s cage. The stick was in reach but not the banana. The chimpanzee tried to get the banana but failed. It stopped trying but returned shortly afterwards using the stick to rake in the banana. This provides insight into learning and demonstrates it can only occur when all the elements of a problem (arm, stick, banana, distance) are understood in a meaningful whole as the chimpanzee found the inter-relationship between them.

Answer 39

It argues that it only makes sense to study behaviour as a whole. Hence the complete ‘whole’ circle Indivisible system Eg: biological AND environmental influences on behaviour, family, leisure and job context The sum of the parts does not equal the whole

Answer 40

Human behaviour is best explained by breaking down into constituent parts The belief that the best way to research and understand behaviour is by ‘reducing’ it down to its smaller parts or units eg: the genetic explanation of schizophrenia or the role of hormones in aggression The scientific principle of ‘parsimony’ suggests all phenomena should be explained using the most basic principles When explaining use terminology like so... - It reduces the behaviour down to the units of.... - if reduce down to a unit, more measurable and use it to be more scientific

Answer 41

The idea of ‘levels of explanation’ is that there are different ways of viewing the same behaviour. Higher levels tend to be less scientific and consider a range of factors affecting behaviour, lower levels are more reductionist and scientific looking at behaviour in terms of one basic aspect of unit to explain behaviour

Answer 42

Higher (more holistic) eg: social and cultural explanations eg: how groups effect behaviour Middle - psychological explanations eg: schizophrenia involves thought disorder Lower (more reductionist) eg: biological explanations like hormones and genes

Answer 43

OCD Higher (social and cultural)-Producing unusual or irrational behaviour Middle (psychological)- obsessive thoughts Lower (biological): at a physical level-a sequence of movements involved in washing ones hands At a physiological level- hypersensitivity of the basal ganglia At a neurochemical level- underproduction of serotonin

Answer 44

Humanistic psychology Subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person What matters is a sense of unified identity. The person needs to feel a sense of ‘wholeness’ to stay mentally healthy Therapies eg: Roger’s client centred therapy aims to bring together all aspects of the whole person

Answer 45

These psychologists argues that what we can see can only make sense by considering the whole of an image not just the individual parts Gestalt psychologists also looked at learning and applied ‘insight learning’ to chimpanzees. This meant when a solution to a problem suddenly comes to us in a flash Holism explained insight learning shown in Kohler’s chimpanzees as theorists suggest this happens when all elements of the problem are understood as a meaningful whole allowing a solution to be found

Answer 46

Scientific principle which suggests all phenomena should be explained using the most basic principles

Answer 47

Biological- reduces social and psychological behaviour to biological units eg: genes and hormones, brain structures and neurotransmitters Environmental- (behaviourism) reduces complex behaviour to units of stimulus and response- links that are learned through experience Experimental- reduces complex behaviour to a form or unit that can be studied. Variables are isolated , manipulated and measured

Answer 48

Behaviour can be modified using reward to strengthen a given behaviour eg: praise a child for being good Attachment is formed through stimulus response links in where a child learns to associate its mother with the pleasure of food Units of stimulus and response can be used to explain the acquisition of phobias through classical conditioning

Answer 49

The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia explained the illness in terms of neurotransmitters Evidence suggests OCD is influences by a brain circuit involving the frontal cortex, basal ganglia and the thalamus The MAOA gene is implicated in aggression

Answer 50

Loft us work on EWT in the lab operationalised variables ina way to make them measurable Cognitive psychologists assess mementoes using lists of words and nonsense words recalled in a set amount of time

Answer 51

The interactionist approach suggests there is more than one level of explanation which may operate at one time Interactionist approach looks at HOW these different levels may combine and interact in behaviour

Answer 52

Interactionist explanations accept that there are different levels of explanation for schizophrenia but they also suggest that more than 1 level of explanation can operate at the same time Higher- background of family dysfunction/ started a new job Middle- dysfunctional thought and processing Lower- father with a diagnosis of schizophrenia

Answer 53

Example of how different levels of explanation can interact at the same time in schizophrenia Lower- diathesis eg: genetic disposition + higher- stressor eg: starting a new job, divorce... = schizophrenia

Answer 54

Interactionist- compromises between holistic approches and reductionist approches Interactionist- can look at different levels of explanation at the same time to come to a fuller understanding Holism- all aspects of behaviour as being indivisible- can’t separate them- have to look at as a whole where as interactionist accosts they are separate but can look at them as part of an explanation- more insight

Answer 55

- strong links to evaluating science. Reductionist approaches reduce behaviour down to units that are measurable. As a result, they are more testable, and research is more replicable.

Answer 56

Reliability- operationalising variables gives measurable units of behaviour eg: stimulus response units Validity- these approaches give psychology greater scientific credibility Reliability- operationalising variables gives measurable units if behaviour eg: genetic research and neurotransmitters in schizophrenia Application- systematic desensitisation and flooding are used to treat phobia Application- biological explanations have led to drug therapies for a range of mental illness

Answer 57

Validity-genetic is biological explanations do not include the social context of behaviour seen in higher levels of explanation Application- drug therapies based on lower levels of explanation treat one aspect of complex mental disorders like schizophrenia Validity/ generalisability- evidence for stimulus response links is based on animal research in lab settings

Answer 58

Validity- higher level explanations give more complete global understanding Validity- high levels of explanation take all factors affecting the individual into account eg: humanist explanations Validity- looking at group contexts and group behaviour gives good understanding of social bahviour eg: de individuation in the Stanford Prison Experiment

Answer 59

Generalisability/validity- humanist approches reject scientific method and it is difficult to test the concepts

Answer 60

Validity- the diathesis-stress modelof uses more than 1 level of explanation to explain schizophrenia Application-a multi-disciplinary approach to treatment of mental illness uses more than 1 therapy to address factors from different levels of explanation eg: biological, psychological and social

Answer 61

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces - self determining, free to choose our thoughts and actions - are able to reject biological or environmental forces that exert some influence in our behaviour - advocated by the humanistic approach

Answer 62

An individuals behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than an individuals will to do something

Answer 63

Hard and soft determinism

Answer 64

Implies that free will is not possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal or external events beyond our control - or ‘fatalism’ - compatible with the aims of science- to uncover causal laws that govern thought and action - have no control - extreme position - behaviour has a cause-can identify and describe

Answer 65

All events, including human behaviour have caused but behaviour can also be determined by our conscious choices in the absence of coercion (different to hard determinism) - philosopher William James first to put it forward - important feature of cognitive approach - acknowledges behaviour has a cause but has ‘room for manoeuvre’-have conscious mental control over the way they behave - have freedom to make rational conscious choices in everyday situations

Answer 66

Biological, environmental, psychic determinism

Answer 67

Belief that behaviour is caused by biological (genetics, hormonal, evolutionary) influences that we cannot control - psychological and neurological (brain) processes are kg under our conscious control eg: influences of autonomic nervous system during periods of stress and anxiety - mental disorders- genetic basis eg: hormone levels - biopsychologists recognise the mediating influence of the environment and our biological structures

Answer 68

The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment (such as reward or punishment) that we cannot control - skinner described free will as ‘an illusion’, argued all behaviour is the result of conditioning - our ‘choice’ is a sum of reinforcement contingencies that has influenced us throughout our lives - act independently but our behaviour is shaped by environmental events and ‘agents of socialism’ eg: parents, teachers, institutions etc.

Answer 69

Belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control - Freud agreed with skinner, free will is ‘an illusion’ but he placed more emphasis on the influence I’d biological drives and instincts than behaviourists - sees human behaviour as determine by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood - according to Freud there is no such thing as an accident, a ‘slip of the tongue’ can be explained by underlying authority of the conscious

Answer 70

- causes can be explained using general laws - knowledge of causes and formulation of laws are important as they allow scientists to predict and control events in the future - laboratory experiment enables researchers to stimulate the conditions of test tube and remove all extraneous variables in attempt to control and predict behaviour

Answer 71

- notorious east end gangsters - born in 1933 - 1951 started national service but given dishonourable discharge in 1954 - known for their violence and crimes - established the gang called “The Firm” - took part in armed robbery, arson, hijacking and murder - sentenced life in prison at 35 years old

Answer 72

- Father was a second hand clothes dealer who was in and out of the boys lives because he went in the run to avoid military service - the boys were devoted to their mother Violet who was the classic gangster’s mother; described as proud of her boys and totally spoiled them from birth - grandfather Jimmy “Cannonball” Lee, was a fighter. Following in his footsteps, Ronnie and Reggie became boxers. Ronnie had some success, buy his brother was considered the real contender. Outside of the ring, Ronnie had the more explosive temper and was known for his willingness to fight anyone that slighted him - The reins were fascinated by movie mobsters if their cinema childhood; their role model was a dashing gangster called Billy Hill, who exercised the same control over Soho as they would do over the East End

Answer 73

They outgrew the poverty and deprivation they were born into and being a corner of the city to their will with ruthless violence

Answer 74

Ronnie Kray was rumoured to be gay which was not openly accepted in society at that time. Ron was experiencing paranoid schizophrenia and, on 9 March 1966 it is said he shot George Cornell at The Blind Beggar Pub for calling him a “fat poof” -usually too simplistic to say it was free will or determinism as it was likely to be a combination of both. They could have made different choices and there was external influences on their behaviour

Answer 75

Free will- people make choices about their actions Determinism- behaviour is caused by factors outside the individual’s control Compromise- soft determinism, all behaviour has a cause, but people have conscious choice over their actions

Answer 76

- people make choices about their actions - a person is capable of self-determination - even though other factors can influence a person’s behaviour, this approach suggests that individuals make choices that put them in control of and responsible for their own futures Eg: the legal system holds people accountable for their actions having chosen to break the law Closest to the humanist approach

Answer 77

- Human bah jour is caused by factors a person cannot control - these forces can be internal eg: biology or external eg: upbringing - behaviour cannot be explained in terms of free will Eg: determinists would argue that if people commit a crime it is because of factors outside of their control, they are not responsible - this approach does not often stand up as a legal defence except in cases of eg: self-defence or mental illness - Removes blame from individual - closest to biological approach

Answer 78

People have freedom to bring about change in their lives by choosing to see their situation differently. If psychological barriers are removed, greater personal growth is possible and people can work towards achieving their potential

Answer 79

-self-determination is necessary for healthy development of self and self actualisation (we talk about self actualisation in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs) - Roger’s client centred therapy: - being free to effect change in their lives by choosing to see their situation differently - Remove psychological barriers that may prevent personal growth-free to work toward their potential (self-actualisation) - conditions of worth and congruence

Answer 80

Levels of choice, control and causality of behaviour

Answer 81

Hard (definite) and soft determinism (determining factors but can exert some choice within contraints) look at the extent to which an approach thinks that behaviour is caused Biological, environmental and psychic determinism identify factors that cause the behaviour- types of hard determinism as it suggests that our behaviour is determined by internal or external factors that we do not control- (shows how it is highlighted/ presented)

Answer 82

These views are sometimes referred to as fatalism because they believe that everything that we do is governed by internal or external forces. These forces cannot be controlled by the person. Hard determinism is compatible with the aims of science because it suggests that we should be able to identify causes of behaviour.

Answer 83

The idea was out forward by William James and accepts that behaviour has a cause but adds some flexibility by suggesting that people have conscious mental control over their behaviour. James thought that scientists should try to explain the various forces that determine behaviour, but that it was also important to look at the freedom we have to make conscious choices in everyday life. This is an important feature of the cognitive approach.

Answer 84

Psychic- Freud thought free will is an illusion and emphasised a range of determining influences in behaviour eg: biological drives and instincts and unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood. Behaviour is never accidental, a ‘slip of the tongue’ has an unconscious cause. Biological- genetics, hormones, evolution play a role in personality, health and intelligence. The nervous system, hormones, neurotransmitters and brain structures influence a range of behaviour Environnement- skinner (behaviourism) said free will is an ‘illusion’. What we think of as free will is just a result of conditioning and reinforcement in all aspects of life eg: systems of reward and punishment. Behaviour is shaped by events and socialising agents eg: parents

Answer 85

It is not so easy to find examples of soft determinism. Theories that incorporate cognitive aspects relating to conscious mental control are relevant eg: Bandura’s Social Learning Theory- environnemental factors like reinforcement in learning are important (determinism), but people can choose what to attend to ( Bandura’s médiation all processes) and whether to show certain behaviour (free will)

Answer 86

- emphasises the causality of behaviour and that it should be predictable. This in line with scientific approches that aim to identify cause and effect in order to make general laws about behaviour - if behaviour has a cause, a scientist can test predictions about future behaviour. The lab experiment (using an IV and DV) reflects attempts to control and predict human behaviour - free will is not compatible with science because it cannot be tested, controlled or manipulated in a systematic way to see its effect on behaviour. Humanist approches emphasise free will and reject the scientific approach

Answer 87

- prediction - cause and effect - general laws - test predictions - control Starts to also highlight overlapping features with a nomothetic approach eg: general laws

Answer 88

✅consistent with the aims of science- places psychology on equal footing with other more established sciences ✅ valuable- the prediction and control of human behaviour has led to the development of treatments , therapies eg: psychotherapeutic drug treatment in schizophrenia ✅Realistic in terms of mental illness as in one would “choose” fo have schizophrenia- causes doubt in free will

Answer 89

❌ The hard determinism stance is not consistent with the way our legal system operates. In a court of law, offenders are held morally accountable for their actions ❌ unfalsifiable- based on the idea that causes of behaviour will always exist even though may not have been found- hard to prove wrong-suggests determinist approach to human behaviour may not be as scientific as it first appears

Answer 90

✅ makes cognitive sense, gives face of validity as we constantly make choices throughout the day ✅ if have internal locus of control suggested more mentally healthy eg: Roberts et al (2000) demonstrated that adolescents with a strong belief in fatalism (that their lives were decided) were at a greater risk of developing aggression- even if we don’t have free will, the fact we think we do has a positive impact on mind and behaviour

Answer 91

-neurological studies- Benjamin Libet (1985) + Chun Siong Soon et al (2008)- demonstrated that brain activity that determines the outcome of simple choices. Found that the activity related to whether press a button eight the left or right hand occurs in the brain up to 10 seconds before participants report being consciously aware of making the decision. This highlights that our most basic experiences of free will are decided by our brain before we become aware of them

Answer 92

Eg: -Bandura’s Social Learning Theory- Bandura’s argued that although environmental factors in learning are key, we are free to choose who or what to attend to when we perform certain behaviours- more realistic and useful -Bandura’s- ‘reciprocal determinism’ compromised by free will-determinism, you are influenced by your environment and you also influence the environment around you, each impacts on the other, through the behaviours we choose to perform. This is an example of soft determinism because this element of choice suggests that there is some free will in the way we behave

Answer 93

Only in extreme circumstances are juries instructed to act with greater leniency eg: if the law of diminished responsibility is applied- self-defence, mental illness or ‘crimes of passion’- disadvantage of determinism as incompatible with legal responsibility. -As the justice system is based on free will, there is no pony in punishments such as prison as they have minimisant and will ultimately not change the persons behaviour where as if we have an innate predisposition then the criminal cannot be held responsible for their behaviour

Answer 94

- illustrates his belief in free will because he thinks that the client should discover their own solutions to their problems therefore making their own choices on how to grow and develop as an individual - The aim of the therapy is to achieve congruence where the self-concert and ideal self match. If a person feels conditions of worth eg: certain requirements they feel they need to be loved, cannot become a fully functioning person and only then can they exercise free will - The therapist guides the individual but ultimately the individual makes their own choices and solutions to their problems in therapy

Answer 95

- the concept of free will has face validity because people feel that they are exercising choice in their everyday lives. This is incorporated into humanist theories of psychology that suggest people need to be self-determining and able to make choices in their life in order to be mentally and emotionally healthy - Research into locus of control also supports the idea of exercising free will in relation to better mental health (this would support a Maslow and Rogers) - Roberts et al (2000) research showed that adolescents who felt their lives were influenced by factors they couldn’t control were higher risk of developing depression

Answer 96

Some suggest free will is an illusion (skinner and Freud) this is because... - It is difficult to measure the concepts of free will and determinism. Libet’s famous neuroscience experiment did so by measuring brain activity during decision making - The results of Libet’s research suggest that the brain determines our decision making, not free will (therefore this study questions free will and supports determinism) - can also use Derren Brown example- designing campaign

Answer 97

- Lab experiment - 1985 - used EEG brain scanning - Asked them time do a simple hand movement such as press a button when they felt like it. Also measured the time in which they decided to move their hand

Answer 98

- The brain activity increased before the person thought they had taken the decision to act - Found That brain activity initiated the movement hundreds of millions-seconds before the decision was reported. Experiment showed the conscious decision didn’t cause the movement

Answer 99

- Determinists suggests that this shows that the brain determines the decision to act because the EEG shows increased activity before the person said they made the decision to move their hand or press the button - Proof free will is an ‘illusion’ as brain activity started before the individual willed anything to happen. Our conscious decisions are therefore decisions on what’s already happening which causes our action/ response

Answer 100

- Although he said we may not have free will, he suggests ‘free won’t’ exists- conscious veto if an action that is started in the brain - questioned his ability to accurately measure the time of an subjective decision to move - questioned if findings could apply to more complex conscious decisions

Answer 101

Chun Siong Soon et al (2008) | Example PEEL in booklet-consistent with the aims of science

Answer 102

- offers a workable compromise between free will and determinism explanations - these approaches offer a more realistic way of explaining why a perosn behaves the way they do - these approches offer a fuller explanation of why a person behaves the way they do These approches are able to explain why one person might behave differently to another Approches have good application in treatment These explanations are more appropriate for the legal system

Answer 103

Cognitive approach: -we choose our thoughts and behaviours. The choices we make operate within the limits of what we know and have experienced Bandura SLT: - reciprocal determinism: - a perosn is influenced by their environment but they can also influence their environment by the behaviour they choose to perform CBT and depression: -includes elements of free will in terms of making choices and individual goals for therapy. A person may also experience a determinism approach to treatment if given medication to manage biological determinants of the illness Bandura social Learning Theory of Observational Learning: -environmental factors include role models and the presence of vicarious reinforcers. He described cognitive meditational processes including motivation (choice and free will) that influenced whether the behaviour was copied or not

Answer 104

Free will: ✅face validity- cognitive sense ✅Roberts et al (2000)-locus of control ❌Libet and Chung Siong Soon et al-neurological studies Determinism: ✅Consistent with the aims of science ✅development of treatments ✅Explanatory power- no one chooses to have a mental disorder ❌Legal systems operates differently ❌Unfalsifiable- don’t know external causes of behaviour- not been found Soft determinism: ✅Social learning theory and reciprocal determinism ❌No definitive answer-makes legal cases hard to justify eg: self defence

Answer 105

Look in booklet- week 11 of lockdown

Answer 106

Researchers make and test hypotheses and predictions of cause and effect. An important aspect is the control, manipulation and precise measurement of variables. The findings are used to identify general laws that can be used to explain behaviour in groups of people. Scientific research should be objective and have procedures that can be replicated. -if an approach shows features of science this adds ‘scientific credibility’

Answer 107

Look in booklet- week 11 of lockdown- gives positions of approaches within different debates and explanation

Answer 108

- psychologists aim to understand human behaviour and explain it in an ‘objective’ and ‘value free’ way (without bias) - they aim to make theories about behaviour that can be applied to all people equally regardless of time and culture despite differences in experiences- universality

Answer 109

The theories produced lend to represent a male world view that may neglect or exclude female experience

Answer 110

Historically, psychology has been a male dominated area. This is an issue because this leaves psychological theories open to question. Can predominantly male research explain ‘female’ experience? The prevalence of male researchers in psychology is easy to see

Answer 111

- Mary Ainsworth -attachment - Mane Jahoda - definitions of abnormality - Elizabeth Loftus- EWT

Answer 112

-Institutional sexism: 👫Men predominate at senior research level 👫Research agenda follows male concerns, female concerns being marginalised or ignored -standardised procedures in research studies: 👫Women and men may respond different in the situation 👫Women and men may be treated differently by researchers -Dissemination of research results: 👫Publishing bias toward positive results 👫Research that finds gender differences more likely to get published than that which doesn’t

Answer 113

A biased view is one that is distorted in some way 👫Gender bias is the idea that research and theory in psychology does not equally reflect the experience of men and women

Answer 114

Effects- differential treatment of men and women based on stereotypes not real differences Gender bias leads to problems with validity eg: a theory based on male behaviour may not fully explain female behaviour

Answer 115

Alphas bias and beta bias

Answer 116

Alpha bias is when the differences between men and women are exaggerated and over emphasised - it suggests real differences between men and women - Differences are seen as fixed and unchanging - Cab devalue one gender compared to the other (usually women)

Answer 117

- Freud’s theory saw feminist as failed masculinity - He devalued females in using makes as the basis for comparison - He suggested that because girls cannot experience castration anxiety and the Oedipus conflict as boys do, they from a weaker indentifucation with their same sex parent (their mother). - As a result, girls are seen to form weaker superego and sense of morality than males

Answer 118

Beta bias is when the difference between men and women are minimises, ignored or underestimated. - men and women are assumed to be more similar than they are eg: all male samples in research need to explain male and female behaviour - can mean the needs of one gender add ignored (often women) - descriptions of ‘normal’ behaviour for everyone (including women) can be based on male characteristics - female behaviour can be judged as abnormal in comparison to male standard

Answer 119

Example 1: - Fight or flight response is based on male response- research used male animals because female hormones fluctuate - It assumed a universal response which didn’t explain female behaviour - Shelley Taylor et al (2000) suggest females have evolved to inhibit fight or light in order to protect their young - They show ‘tend and befriend’ behaviour that isles social networks for support Example 2: Milgram used male sample to explain obedience in men and women- suggested a universal response when only used a male sample- can’t be generalised to women

Answer 120

It is important to consider whether gender bias exists because of its effects It also means a gender biased view is distorted therefore has weaker validity

Answer 121

Both Alpha and beta bias can devalue one sex Eg:Alpha bias of Freud Eg:Beta Bias- understanding female experience by using male behaviour as the standard 👫This is an issue as our view of what counts as ‘normal’ is based on males and females can be judged as ‘abnormal’ in comparison. Therefore women can be seen as abnormal because they don’t behave in the way that is typical of men 👫It can also trivialises their experiences eg: premenstrual syndrome in women as a diagnostic category suggests that the behaviour shown is abnormal, and is medicalised in terms of hormones , yet it is argued that male anger is often seen as a rational response to pressure. Not equal- double standards

Answer 122

Asch used a sample of 50 male students from 3 American colleges. This was gender biased by demonstrating beta bias. Asch underestimated the differences between males and females by only using a male sample (50 male students) and generalising the results to everyone including women. This therefore does not justifiably represent women’s behaviour in the same situation making the results invalid

Answer 123

- proposed a stage theory of moral development based entirely on the longitudinal study of a sample of American men - Based on male-orientated principles but argued they were universal and represented moral reasoning for males and females

Answer 124

Beta bias Underestimated the differences between male and females by not including female participants and generalising his reasoning in moral reasoning to everyone. This is bad as it leads to misleading assumptions and takes the male view as correct or ‘normal’

Answer 125

-Attacked Kohlberg for the absence of female participants in the research. Argued that whilst female morality is different to men (seen as influenced by ethnic care and responsibility of others) it is no less mature or sophisticated then the men, which she argued was based on abstract principles like justice

Answer 126

Alpha bias Gillian exaggerates the differences in morality between men and women. She suggests that it is the same for all men and women that it’s pre-existing/ cant be stopped. This can lead to misleading assumptions and it doesn’t challenge stereotypes.

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- misleading assumptions - fail to challenge negative stereotypes - validate discriminatory practices eg. Provide scientific ‘justification’ to deny women opportunities in the workplace or in wider society - Carol Tavris, ‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal’ - Damage lives and prospects of women eg: statistic that females are around twice as likely to be diagnosed with depression than men

Answer 128

In the past women have been subjected to sexism in the exploration of psychology, their voice being minimised, marginalised or judged as ‘abnormal’ against men. This has led psychology to have many male dominated concepts and theories - Psychologists attempt to make theories that apply to all people which is known as universality - this can be problematic if it ignores differences between men and women - psychology has been dominated by male researchers in the past which has led to androcentrism which means a male world view - therefore, androcentrism theories do not incorporate the experience of women and show gender bias- they show a distorted view based on men, not men and women - a biased or distorted view will have weaker validity when used to explain behaviour in all people

Answer 129

Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. Gender bias and cultural bias threaten the universality of findings in psychology.

Answer 130

-when considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others. In the context of gender bias, psychological research may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (usually women)

Answer 131

Male centred- when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard (meaning that female behaviour is often judged to be ‘abnormal’ or deficient’ by comparison)

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Psychological theories that suggest there are real and enduring differences between men and women. These may enhance or undervalue members of either sex, but typically undervalue females.

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Theories that ignore or minimise differences between the sexes

Answer 134

- influenced by social and historical context - bias undermines psychology’s claims to universality - there despite aims to make it ‘objective’ and coherent with the ‘facts’

Answer 135

-alpha bias exaggerated or overestimates differences between the sexes. Typically presented as fixed and inevitable or real and enduring

Answer 136

- sociobiological theory eg: Wilson 1975 which explains human sexual attraction and behaviour through a principle of ‘survival efficiency’. Whereby, males try to impregnate as many women in hope that their genes will be passed to the next generation. For the female, they preserve their genes by ensuring the healthy survival of offspring in her lifetime - this demonstrates alpha bias as it exaggerates the difference between sexes, men’s sexual promiscuity seen as genetically determined whilst females who do the same as seen as going against their ‘nature’ - also shows the essentialist argument in psychology

Answer 137

- minimises or underestimates differences between men and women - this is when female participants are not included as part of the research process and the research findings just assume to apply to both sexes

Answer 138

-for example this is shown in kohlberg’s theory of moral development -or fight or flight response: ➡️Early research was based exclusively on male animals (preferred for research because female hormones fluctuate). This was then assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation ➡️BUT recently (2000) Shelley Tayloret al suggested female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response, shifting from tending to their offspring to forming defensive networks with other females (befriending)

Answer 139

- consequence of beta bias - if understanding of what counts as ‘normal’ behaviour is being drawn from research of all- male samples, then any behaviour that deviates from this is likely to be judged as ‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘deficient’ in comparison - therefore, female behaviour is misunderstood or pathologists (sign of psychological instability or disorder) - eg: feminist commentators have objected to the diagnostic category pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS) as their behaviour doesn’t follow the stereotypes of female experience - Brescoll + Uhlman (2008) claim PMS is a social construction which medical users female emotions like anger in hormonal terms. Where as male anger is seen as a rational response to external pressures

Answer 140

- in the psychosexual stages he suggested girls no not have the same pressure as boys to identify with the same- sex parent. This is because a girl does not experience castration anxiety in the phallic stage. - also bad implications in the structure of personality suggesting females have a weaker superego. Therefore, female’s sense of morality is inferior to that of men - Freud saw femininity as an expression of failed masculinity eg: concept of penis envy. This means that women are psychologically defined by the fact they are not men - Freud saw female ‘vanity’ as a defence mechanism- to make up for their sexual inferiority to men they focus on ‘physical charms’ - critics have dismissed the ‘phallocentrism’ in Freud’s theory

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- Neo-Freudian Karen Horner (1926): - argued Freud overlooked the fact men are likely to have jealously of women’s ability to conceive and bear children (womb envy)

Answer 142

1)Kohlberg (1973) proposed a stage theory of moral development based off a longitudinal study of American men (only). It was based on male- orientated principles which he argued where universal. Therefore representing moral reasoning for men and women

Answer 143

2)Carol Gilligan attacked Kohlberg for his absence of female participants in his research. She argued that whilst male morality is based on abstract principles eg: importance of justice, female morality is influenced by ethnic care and responsibility of others. Gilligan argued that this female attribute places them lower or less mature level of moral reasoning in Kohlberg’s model. But she argues that whilst female morality is different to men it is no less mature or sophisticated.

Answer 144

-research in the 1930s suggested the intellectual development of females would decrease the amount of women falling pregnant (has)

Answer 145

Week 12 of issues and debates- ANSWERS

Answer 146

❌Creates misleading assumptions about female behaviour ❌Fails to challenge negative stereotypes ❌Validate discriminatory practices ❌May provide scientific ‘justification’ to deny women opportunities eg: in the workplace or in wider society ❌Carol Tavris- ‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal’ ❌Not just a methodological problem but can affect the lives and prospects of real women eg: females are twice as likely to be diagnosed with depression than men

Answer 147

✅Reflexivity: ✅Psychologists recognising own values and assumptions have impacts on the nature of their work ✅Embrace it as a crucial and critical aspect of the research process in general ✅EG: Dambrin and Lambert who reflected on how their gender- related experiences may influence their reading of events of women in executive positions at accountancy firms ✅ important as it leads to greater awareness of the role of personal biases in shaping research in the future

Answer 148

- many gender differences have been reported based in the essentialist perspective- that gender differences is essential and ‘fixed’ in nature - Walkerdine (1990)- shows how ‘scientific’ research in the 1930s, revealed how intellectual activity eg: attending university, could shrivel a women’s ovaires and harm her chances of giving birth - these essentialist accounts are usually politically motivated and disguised as biological ‘facts’ - this creates a ‘double standard’ in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective

Answer 149

-Shows double standards in the way it presents male and female behaviour- based on the notion behaviour is partly inherited and affected by natural selection. Therefore, it suggests behaviour just like physical traits have evolved over time. A double standards is therefore set for one group of people than another eg: the sociobiological theory of relationships promotes gender differences in sexual behaviour eg: applies more severe standards of sexual behaviour to women than to men

Answer 150

-feminist commentators eg: Worrell and Remer (1992) put forward a number of criteria that should be adhered to in order to avoid gender bias in research -EG: women should be studied in meaningful real-life contexts, should genuinely participate in research... -they also suggest there should be diversity within groups of women examined rather than just comparisons between women and men -lastly, they suggest there should be greater emphasis placed in collaborative research methods that collect qualitative data, as opposed to numerical data -this qualitative data may be more preferable/ less gender bias than the laboratory based research as laboratory-based research permits investigation expectations and stereotypes than male participants -qualitative data like looking at diversity may be more preferable by showing that female stereotypes don’t apply to all women and could reduce stereotypes -collaborative research (produces qualitative data) may also be preferred as it allows for unexpected findings because questions are not fixed in advance (and will not always support existing views)

Answer 151

Week 13 video notes- has some extra stuff on comparing approches using issues and debates as well as grave

Answer 152

- Get evidence in a psychological theory or research - Is it a problem for psychology? Why? Why not? - what are the consequences of gender bias, negative? why? - signpost your PEEL Gender bias ➡️ effects ➡️ who, positive/ negative, how serious

Answer 153

Example: - USA research has shown androcentrism in diagnosis because the standard of healthy adult behaviour is based on typical male behaviour - Research also showed the psychiatrist’s gender affected diagnosis Effect: - women are less mentally healthy compared to men - incorrect diagnosis prevents correct treatment - the effects of gender bias are complex Grave: -ethics: clinicians have a duty to help people and ensure equal access to correct treatment Validity: if diagnosis is based on a distorted view this reduces validity

Answer 154

1) Alpha bias in psychology 2) Beta bias in psychology 3) problems throughout the research process 4) various damaging effects

Answer 155

- it can play a valuable role in research (reflexivity) | - it is possible to address some of the problems of gender bias in research

Answer 156

Example: - Freud’s psychodynamic theory includes the concept of penis envy and the Oedipus complex - it suggests that women cannot fully develop a super ego (as men do) and have weaker identification with their mother Impact: -in attempting to create a universal theory, alpha bias has led to a limited explanation that devalues female experience and suggests that women are morally inferior Grave: Validity- Freud exaggerated the difference between men and women based on untestable concepts. His assumptions are not based on real differences Link: -therefore in attempting to create a universal theory, alpha bias weakens the value of psychodynamic theory in psychology

Answer 157

Example: - Kohlberg’s research into moral reasoning showed Beta Bias by... - sample of American men and used moral dilemmas with male bias - suggested that female morality based on ethnic care and responsibility and male morality based on more abstract concepts Impact: - suggests that women are at a less mature level of moral reasoning - this can be seen as devaluing women Grave: - validity-carol Gilligan (1982) said this misrepresented female moral reasoning. Her research showed women show different styles but not less mature Link: -therefore in attempting to create a universal theory, beta bias weakens the value of Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 158

Examples: -publication bias- lack of women at senior research levels meaning female concerns are not asked. Male researchers were also more likely to have their work published and more evidence if gender differences are more likely to appear eg: journal articles -institutional sexism- laboratory experiments may disadvantage women as female participants are put on an inequitable relationship with the usually male researcher- has the power to label them unreasonably, be irrational and may be unable to complete complex tasks eg: Denmark et al - men predominate - research agenda follows male concerns - standardised procedures in research may lead to different responses - women AND men might be treated differently by researchers - publishing bias towards positive results - research that finds gender differences is more likely to get published than that which doesn’t Impact: - creates artificial differences - masks real differences Grave: -validity: historical problem of gender bias have presented a distorted (and androcentric) view. Research needs techniques to accurately reflect experience of men and women as there are also examples where gender bias can disadvantage males eg: diagnosis of eating disorders

Answer 159

Examples: - misleading assumptions about female behaviour - assumptions may validate discriminatory practices - may provide scientific justification to deny women - opportunities at work eg: pre-menstrual syndrome. If male is used as standard for comparison, Travis- ‘it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal’- affects lives and prospects eg: women approx 2x more likely to be diagnosed with depression then men Impact: - devalues one sex - fails to challenge negative stereotypes - justifies discrimination - affects lives and prospects - Tavris ‘normal for women to feel abnormal’ Grave: Ethics-negative impact on women -reduced life prospects and opportunities Links: -therefore improvements need to be made to limit negative effects of gender bias

Answer 160

Example: - reflexivity=researchers recognition of their effects on their own work - embrace bias as a crucial part of their work - Dambrin + Lambert (2008) looked at lack of women in high positions in accountancy firms - they included a reflection of HOW their gender related experiences may have influenced their reading of events Impact: - greater awareness of role of gender bias in psychology - reflexivity may help develop new research techniques in the future Grave: - validity= by aiming to understand the role of gender in research, it is possible to give additional context to the research question looked at, and, the findings. - this depth and can be used to guide people in the interpretation of the results eg: academic reports will outline where gender may have played a role and specifically who the results can be applied to Link: -therefore, the effect of gender bias can be valuable in research

Answer 161

Examples: - practical ways of dealing with it... - instead of looking at topics like female menopause as ‘specialised’ research, and topics male behaviour as ‘basic/essential’ research, identify the particular group of relevance in all cases Impact: -reduces gender bias in all stages of research. Ensures that findings are only interpreted in light of the participants and sample used . Reduces misleading similarities or differences. Minimises damaging effects Grave: - ethics: ensures better application of findings eg:in treatments - reduces negative effects - validity: increases the likelihood of measuring what you claim to - ensures describing behaviour in people that is reflected in the sample used in research Link: -therefore, by addressing problems of gender bias in the research process, the quality of research will be improved

Answer 162

Week 13 booklet (back)- gender bias in psychology A03

Answer 163

🌍The tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions - this is a problem because it presents a distorted view of behaviour - probed with validity and generalisations

Answer 164

- Seeing things from the point of view of ourselves and our social groups - problem= research may assume their culture is superior (this can be intentional or unintentional). As a result, the culture being studied may be judged to be less developed or inferior

Answer 165

-opposite of ethnocentrism - strength= the view that behaviour cannot be judged properly unless it is viewed in the context of the culture in which it originates - awareness of cultural relativism when doing research will help to minimise the effects of ethnocentrism Eg: auditory hallucinations or forensics- different legal systems

Answer 166

- psychology attempts to explain aspects of behaviour that hold true for all people - in reality, findings only strictly apply to people in the research (problem when generalising)

Answer 167

-the research approach associated with ethnocentrism is imposed etic- this is when a technique or theory developed in one culture is used to study the behaviour of people in another culture

Answer 168

-the research approach associated with cultural relativism is emic- this is when individual cultures are studied and generalisations are only made within that culture

Answer 169

-Ainsworth= the ‘strange situation’ was developed in America and used to compare attachments in different cultures- one culture is used as a standard for comparison

Answer 170

-Cochrane and Sashidharan- African Caribbean immigrants are seven times more likely to be diagnosed with a mental illness- using western classification systems to diagnose another culture

Answer 171

-in the DSM-IV-TR, ‘koro’ is listed as an episode of sudden and intense anxiety that the Penis will recede into the body and possibly cause death, it is mostly experienced by Chinese men- generalised to Chinese men- individual culture studied

Answer 172

Think globalisation and interconnectedness 1) Etic: - Mac Donald’s have different menus to reflect culture preferences of individual countries - Starbucks- imposed same (Western) menu on other cultures 2) Emic: - Mac Donald’s (one of first) menus made adjustments to add food from country in/ where it is being sold

Answer 173

- Takano and Osaka: - found 14/15 studies comparing US and Japan found no evidence of this distinction - Henrich (2010): - revised psych journals - 68% US based - 96% industrialised nations - Arnett (2008): - other reviews found 80% patients were psych undergraduates Henrich also often said the groups of people studied by psychologists are weird: ``` W- westernised E- educated I- industrialised R- rich D- democracies ``` which makes non- weird people seem inferior or unusual

Answer 174

- a demonstration of how cultural content on intelligence tests may lead to culturally biased score results - a culturally biased test as not everyone would be aware of these songs, traditions or familiar with their specific cultural past - It’s known as the ‘Dove Counterbalance General Intelligence Test’- designed by a black sociologist Adrian Dove - designed to demonstrate differences in understanding and culture between races, specifically between African Americans and white people - In determining how streetwise someone is, the chilting test may have validity, but there have been NO studies demonstrating this - the chilting test has only proved valid as far as facts validity is concerned and no evidence been brought to light in the chilting predicting performance

Answer 175

- shows imposed etic - suggested that the ideal form was ‘secure attachment’ shown in western children by moderate separation anxiety - when applied to German children, suggested (wrongly) that German mothers were cold and rejecting - the categories developed by Ainsworth in the USA did- not incorporate cultural differences seen and were used to suggest that the German parenting was somehow inferior

Answer 176

1) Auditory hallucinations- listed as a symptom of Sz in DSM but it is not a sign of mental illness in all cultures some tribes seeing it as a gift 2) Forensic psychology- defining a crime may be subject to cultural variations as legal systems differ

Answer 177

-Lefley and Pedersen (1986): - European/ American ideas about what it means to be mentally healthy and mentally ‘normal’ are not necessarily shared by the rest of the world - clinicians in US and Europe regarded characteristics such as self-sufficiency, independence, goal- orientated behaviour- internal local of control as indicators of mental health - in contrast, individuals who demonstrate dependence on others and external LOC are often seen as less healthy- but these characteristics may be seen as more positively in other parts of the world

Answer 178

- psychologists may overlook the importance of cultural diversity in understanding human behaviour, resulting in theories that are scientifically inadequate and lack validity - may also privilege their own world view, leading to research that either intentionally or unintentionally supports racist and discriminatory practices in the real world- ethics

Answer 179

- research has emphasise a distinction - western- ‘individualist’ cultures- eg: UK and USA, independence and personal freedom - collectivist cultures- India and China- interdependence and group

Answer 180

1) Facial Expressions- emotions are universal across cultures and can be seen in the animal world 2) Interactional synchrony- some features of attachment are universal Both show an etic approach can be appropriate

Answer 181

- CC research helps to show differences in beliefs and understanding - helps western researchers to challenge their western views - research can become more sensitive to differences and cultural relativism - increase validity of findings

Answer 182

- evaluation summary in notes | - pages of strength and weakness peels in notes !!

Answer 183

1) A weakness of culturally biased theories is that they can give a distorted view of behaviour: - one example is humanist theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. This approach is based on western culture and values independence and striving to achieve self-actualisation. These ideals do not necessarily apply to other non-western cultures. - this is a problem if the theory assumes universality and is used to assess behaviour in other cultures. Trying to understand people in non-western cultures according to Maslow’ theory may misinterpret their experience and lacks validity - therefore, psychologists need to specify the context of their research and the population it can be applied to 2) A weakness of using an imposed etic is ethnocentrism: - Ainsworth’s strange situation reflects imposed etic by assessing attachment using the US model as the norm - Her findings presented a distorted view of attachment because when applied to German children, the approach wrongly suggested that German mothers were cold and rejecting - by suggesting that German parenting was somehow inferior, the research shows ethnocentrism - this is socially sensitive and reduces the validity of her work when applied to countries outside of USA - therefore, researchers should adopt emic approaches to understand attachment in the context of the culture in which it is shown

Answer 184

1) A positive consequence of identifying cultural bias in psychology is improvements in practice. Cultural bias has been a serious difficulty on western concepts which may be inappropriate for people from other cultures. Further, this may have led some groups to be diagnosed with certain disorders more frequently than others eg: Sz. Recognition of cultural differences and bias in diagnosis has led DSM 5 to include guidance for psychiatrists on how people from ethnic minorities may present symptoms differently. This has improved application by reducing misdiagnosis. Therefore, the problem of cultural bias may be reducing over time. 2) A strength resulting from awareness of cultural bias is the development of ‘indigenous psychologies’. Indigenous psychologies refers to different groups of theories that have been developed in African countries eg: Afrocentrism has developed suggesting that all black peoples who bave their roots in Africa and should have African centred theories. This is a strength because it has led to the development of theories relevant to the life and culture of specific people. These theories will give a more valid insight into the behaviour of African people than those developed in western cultures. Therefore, awareness of cultural bias has had a positive influence in the development of additional theories in psychology.

Answer 185

-LOOK OVER REST WITH NOTES FROM LOCKDOWN: TEST ONLY ON: - Gender 👥 - culture 🌍 - free will and determinism 😉😳 - nature vs nurture 🧬 🌿

Chapter 4- Issues And Debates (paper 3) Flashcards

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