Chapter 42- The Animal Body and Principles of Regulation Flashcards
(97 cards)
1
Q
Anatomy
A
Study of the biological form of an organism
2
Q
Physiology
A
Study of the biological functions an organism performs
3
Q
Order from simplest to complex
A
Cells < Tissues < Organs < Organ Systems
4
Q
How many vertebrates do humans have?
A
210
5
Q
Tissues
A
Group of cells that are similar in structure and function
3 embryonic tissues called germ layers
-Endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm
In adult
-Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve
6
Q
Organs
A
Combinations of different tissues that form a structural and functional unit
7
Q
Organ Systems
A
Groups of organs that cooperate to perform the major activities of the body
11 principal organ systems
8
Q
The general body plan?
A
“Tube within a tube”
9
Q
Inner Tube
A
Digestive Tract
10
Q
Outer Tube
A
Main vertebrate body
-Supported by a skeleton
11
Q
Outermost layer
A
Skin and its accessories
12
Q
Characteristics of vertebrates
A
Bilateral symmetry Jointed endoskeleton Dorsal nervous system Modified gut Cephalized
13
Q
What are the 2 main body cavities?
A
Dorsal and Ventral
14
Q
Dorsal
A
Forms within skull and vertebrae
15
Q
Ventral
A
Bounded by the rib cage and vertebral column
Divided by the diaphragm into thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
16
Q
Thoracic cavity
A
Heart and lungs
17
Q
What cavity is around the heart?
A
Pericardial cavity
18
Q
What cavity is around the lungs?
A
Pleural cavity
19
Q
Abdominopelvic cavity
A
Most organs
20
Q
Peritoneal cavity
A
Coelomic space
21
Q
Epithelial Tissue
A
Covers every surface of the vertebrate body
Can come from any of the 3 germ layers
Tightly bound together - provide a protective barrier
Good regenerative powers
22
Q
Basal Surface
A
Secured side
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Q
Apical Surface
A
Free side
24
Q
What are the two general classes of epithelial tissue?
A
Simple and stratified
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Simple
One layer thick
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Stratified
Several layer thick
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What are the subdivisions for the two classes?
Squamous, cuboidal, and columnar
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Squamous
Flat
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Cuboidal
About as wide as tall
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Columnar
Taller than they are wide
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Simple squamous epthelium
Lines lungs and blood capillaries
| Delicate nature permits diffusion
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Simple cuboidal epithelium
Lines kidney tubules and several glands
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Simple columnar epithelium
Lines airways of respiratory tract and most of the gastrointestinal tract
Contains goblet cells - secrete mucus
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Simple Epithelium
Glands of vertebrates form from invaginated epithelia
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Exocrine glands
Conected to epithelium by a duct
| Sweat, sebaceous, and salivary glands
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Endocrine glands
Ductless - lost duct during development
| Secretions (hormones) enter blood
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Stratified Epithelium
Named according to the features of their apical cell layers
| Epidermis
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Connective Tissues
Derive from embryonic mesoderm
| All have abundant extracellular material called the matrix
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What are the two major classes of connective tissues?
Connective tissue proper and special connective tissue
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Connective tissue proper
Loose or dense
| Fibroblasts produce and secrete extracellular matrix
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Loose connective tissue
Cells scattered within a matrix that contains a large amount of ground substance
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What strengthens the loose connective tissue?
Collagen, elastin, and reticulin
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Collagen
Supports tissue
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Elastin
Makes tissue elastic
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Reticulin
Helps support the network of collagen
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Adipose cells
They are fat cells that develop in large groups in certain areas, forming adipose tissue
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Dense connective tissue
Contains less ground substance than loose connective tissue
| Can be categorized as regular or irregular
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Dense regular connective tissue
Collagen fibers line up in parallel
| Makes up tendons and ligaments
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Dense irregular connective tissue
Collagen fibers have different orientations
| Covers kidney, muscles, nerves, and bone
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What are the three special connective tissue?
Blood, cartilage, and bone
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Cartilage
Made from chondroitin (characteristic glycoprotein) and collagen fibers
Firm and flexible tissue that does not stretch
Found in joint surfaces and other locations
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Bone
Osteocytes (bone cells remain alive in a matrix hardened with calcium phosphate
Communicate through canaliculi
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Blood
Extracellular material is the fluid plasma
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Erythrocytes
Red Blood cells
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Leukocytes
White blood cells
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Thrombocytes
Platelets
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What are the three muscle tissues?
Smooth, skeletal, and cardiac
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Skeletal
```
Straited
Voluntary
Usually attached to bone by tendons
Muscle fibers (cells) are multinucleated
Contract by means of myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
```
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Smooth
Unstraited
Unvoluntary
Found in walls of blood vessels and visceral organs
Contain a single nucleus
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Cardiac
Straited
Unvoluntary
Composed of smaller, interconnected cells
Each with a single nucleus
Interconnections appear as dark lines called intercalated disks
Gap junctions link adjacent cells
-Enable cardiac muscle cells to form a single functioning unit
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Nerve tissue
Cells include neurons and their supporting cells (neuroglia)
| Consist of three parts
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What are the three parts to the neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, and axon
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Cell body
Contains the nucleus
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Dendrites
Highly branched extensions
| Conduct electrical impulses toward the cell body
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Axon
Single cytoplasmic extension
| Conducts impulses away from cell body
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Neuroglia
Do not conduct electrical impulses
Support and insulate neurons and eliminate foreign materials in and around neurons
Associate with axon to form an insulating cover called the myelin sheath
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Gaps
(Nodes of Ranvier) are involved in acceleration of impulses
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How is the nervous system divided?
It is divided into the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system
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Central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
| Integration and interpretation of input
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Peripheral nervous system
Nerves and ganglia (collection of cell bodies)
| Communication of signal to and from the CNS to the rest of the body
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What organ system(s) detect external stiumli and coordinate the body's responses?
Nervous, sensory, and endocrine systems
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What organ system(s) provide support and movement?
Muscular and skeletal
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What organ system(s) regulate and maintain the body's chemistry?
Digestive, circulatory, respiratory, and urinary systems.
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What organ system(s) provides defense?
Integumentary and immune systems
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Homeostasis
Dynamic constancy of the internal environment
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Negative feedback mechanisms
Changing conditions are detected by sensors
Information is fed to an integrating center, also called comparator
Compares conditions to a set point
If conditions deviate too far from a set point, biochemical reactions are initiated to change conditions back toward the set point
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What is part of the comparator?
Brain, spinal cord, or endocrine gland
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What do humans have set points for?
Body temperature, blood glucose concentrations, electrolyte (ion) concentration, tendon tension, etc.
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Effectors
(Muscles or glands) change the value of the condition in question back toward the set point value
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What controls many internal factors?
Antagonistic effectors
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Antagonistic effectors are involved in controlling what?
Body temperature
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What happens if the hypothalamus detects high temperature?
Promotes heat dissipation via sweating and dilation of blood vessels in skin
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What happens if the hypothalamus detects low temperature?
Promotes heat conservation via shivering and constriction of blood vessels in skin
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Positive feedback mechanisms
Enhance a change - not common
| These do not in themselves maintain homeostasis
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What is a measure of temperature sensitivity?
Q10
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What is the formula for Q10?
Q10=R(T+10)/RT
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What determines temperature?
Body heat, metabolism, and the environment
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What is the formula for body heat?
Body Heat = Heat produced + Heat transferred
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Radiation
Transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation
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Conduction
The direct transfer of heat between two objects. Energy is transferred from hotter objects to colder ones.
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Convection
Transfer of heat brought about by the movement of a gas or liquid.
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Evaporation
Heat of vaporization or the amount of energy needed to change them from a liquid to a gas phase.
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What are the influencing factors for temperature?
Surface area
Temperature difference
Specific heat conduction
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How do ectotherms regulate temperature?
Low metabolic rates
| Regulate via behavior
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How do endotherms regulate temperature?
```
They create metabolic heat
Conservation or dissipation
Heat transfer is controlled by amount of blood flow to the surface of the animal
-Countercurrent exchange
Allows sustained high-energy activity
```
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What are some examples of stimulation of heat-losing center?
Peripheral blood vessel dilation
| Sweating
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What are some examples of stimulation of heat-promoting center?
Thermogenesis
Constriction of blood peripheral blood vessels
Epinephrine production by adrenal glands
Anterior pituitary produces TSH
