Chapter 5-9 Flashcards
(113 cards)
1
Q
nonsense mutation
A
A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.
2
Q
Algae have the ability to capture the _______ of sunlight and convert it into usable forms of energy
A
energy
3
Q
Biofuels are ________.
A
renewable fuels made from living organisms
4
Q
Algae and plants get energy from
A
the sun
5
Q
Biofuel produced is high in
A
chemical energy
6
Q
potential energy
A
stored energy in chemical bonds
7
Q
Kinetic Energy
A
the energy of motion or movement
8
Q
Heat
A
the kinetic energy generated by random movement of molecules or atoms
9
Q
Aerobic Respiration: Glycolysis
A
Occurs in the cytoplasm
* Series of reactions that breaks down sugar into smaller units (pyruvate)
10
Q
electron transport chain
A
NAD+ molecules bring electrons to folds on the inner membrane of the mitochondria
* Electrons flow down a chain of molecules on the inner membrane of the mitochondria
* At the end of the chain, oxygen accepts the electrons and combines with hydrogen atoms to form water.
* The flow of electrons powers the production of most of the ATP in aerobic respiration.
11
Q
Energy is never destroyed; it is only converted from
A
one form to another
12
Q
dna in the form of a chromosome
A
single DNA molecule wrapped around proteins
13
Q
Bases form internal
A
rungs
14
Q
DNA replication produces two copies of the original
A
dna molecule
15
Q
Natural process by which cells make an identical copy of a DNA molecule
A
DNA replication
16
Q
We can use PCR to target
A
STRs
17
Q
amino acids
A
building blocks of proteins
18
Q
Gene expression has two steps:
A
Transcription involves converting DNA to RNA.
* Translation involves converting RNA to protein.
19
Q
Translation
A
Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced
20
Q
Mutations that occur in germ cells (reproductive cells) can be passed
A
on to the next generation.
21
Q
Autotrophs
A
capture and transform the energy of sunlight by photosynthesis
22
Q
Heterotrophs
A
obtain energy by eating other organisms
23
Q
Light energy
A
the energy of the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation.
24
Q
Light energy is made of particles called
A
photons, or packets of light energy
25
Photons of different wavelengths contain different amounts of
energy
26
Differences in wavelength are responsible for
color in visible light.
27
Chlorophyll
a pigment present in the green parts of plants.
28
Photons of light are absorbed by
chlorophyll
29
Excited electrons help generate an energy-carrying molecule known as
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
30
ATP is used to make
sugar
31
carbon fixation
Photosynthesis captures carbon dioxide gas from the air and incorporates carbon atoms into sugar
32
What is obesity?
having an unhealthy amount of body fat
33
Body Mass Index (BMI) estimates
body fat based on height and weight
34
What causes obesity?
energy imbalance: taking in much more energy than we expend in our activities, over time.
35
calories (lowercase c)
the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C
36
Calories (capital C)
equal to 1000 calories, or 1 kilocalorie (kcal)
37
How does the body use macromolecules in food?
The body digests macromolecules into building blocks or subunits.
38
The body uses these subunits:
-to make new molecules.
- as sources of energy
39
Macromolecules contain different amounts of
stored energy
40
Different activities require different amounts of energy.
Not everyone burns Calories at the same rate. What has an effect?
Genetics, muscle mass, and gender
41
A healthy diet includes
balancing calories from food with calories burned.
42
An imbalance of energy in and out can lead to
weight gain or weight loss.
43
nonexercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT)
Energy expenditure through daily activities outside of structured exercise, such as walking, completing household chores, and taking the stairs.
44
To use energy from food, we need to convert it into an energy "currency."
The most commonly used form is the molecule
adenosine triphosphate
(ATP).
45
ATP is spent when?
anytime during muscle contractions, or neuron fires.
46
How do cells extract energy from food?
aerobic respiration
47
aerobic respiration
-a series of reactions that converts stored food energy into ATP
* occurs in the presence of oxygen
48
Blood transports ___________ from food and oxygen from the lungs.
glucose
49
Cell releases energy from glucose and captures it in
ATP
50
Blood transports excess carbon dioxide to the lungs and water to the kidneys.
True
51
A three-stage process that takes place in different parts of the cell
1. glycolysis
2. citric acid cycle
3. electron transport chain
52
citric acid cycle
Series of reactions that helps extract energy (high-energy electrons) from food
* NAD+ picks up and transfers electrons
* Releases carbon dioxide
53
occurs in the absence of oxygen
Glycolysis
54
With no oxygen, aerobic respiration stops, and an anaerobic process called
fermentation
55
Products now undergo fermentation in the cytoplasm instead of
aerobic respiration in mitochondria.
56
lactic acid
product of fermentation in many types of cells, including human muscle cells
57
Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate, which is made up of
linked chains of glucose molecules.
58
Glycogen is used in our body as
short term energy storage
59
Triglycerides are
a type of lipid found in fat cells.
60
Cells convert fats, amino acids, and sugars into
triglycerides.
61
Triglycerides are used for
long term energy storage
62
Photosynthesis and respiration form a continuous cycle, with the outputs of one process serving as
the inputs of the other
63
DNA-
heredity molecule that is passed from parents to offspring
serves as an instruction manual for how to build an individual
Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
64
Humans have how many pairs of chromosomes?
23
65
One chromosome from each pair is inherited
from the biological mother, and the other from the father.
66
23rd pair of chromosomes generally determines
sex
67
One chromosome from each pair is inherited
from the biological mother, and the other from the father.
68
Genome
Complete set of genetic instructions encoded in all the chromosomes of an organism
69
DNA is composed of
nucleotides
70
Each nucleotide consists of
sugar, phosphate, base
71
Two strands of nucleotides pair up and twist around each other to form a
spiral-shaped double helix.
72
Sugars and phosphates form the outside
backbone
73
Nucleotides have one of four
bases:
Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C)
74
Each molecule consists of one of the strands of the original DNA molecule
and a new strand.
75
PCR (polymerase chain reaction)
a laboratory technique scientists use to amplify (replicate) a specific DNA segment to study it.
76
DNA profiling
allows us to identify the unique characteristics in the DNA of a person.
77
short tandem repeats (STRs)
a good type of DNA segment to use for DNA profiling.
78
STRs are in the same places along
chromosomes
79
The length of the STR region can vary from
person to person
80
This allows us to "fingerprint" people based on their
DNA
81
Making a DNA profile
. Collect cells and extract DNA
2. Use PCR to amplify multiple STR regions
3. Separate STRs using gel electrophoresis
4. Compare STR banding patterns
82
spider silk has a higher toughness than
steel or kevlar
83
What is a protein?
a macromolecule made of repeating amino acid subunits.
84
amino acid sequence
Amino acids bond together to form a linear chain.
* Chain folds into a 3-D protein based on the sequence of amino acids
* Changing an amino acid in the sequence changes the 3-D shape of the protein
* Shape of the protein determines its function
85
Genes encode instructions for _______
proteins
86
Synthesis of a protein from a gene is called
gene expression
87
Genes have two parts
regulatory sequences and coding sequences
88
Transcription occurs in
in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
89
Translation occurs on
ribosomes in the cytoplasm
90
Transcription
molecules of messenger RNA (mRNA) are synthesized from the instructions encoded in genes
91
Transcription
RNA polymerase binds to the regulatory sequence of the genes coding region.
92
universal genetic code
Set of rules relating particular mRNA codons to particular amino acids
* 64 possible codons code for 20 different amino acids
93
genetic engineering
Genetic engineering: manipulating the genome of a living organism
* Organisms that have received recombinant genes are considered transgenic or genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
94
recombinant gene
a gene that contains parts of different genes that aren't found together in nature
95
sickle cell disease
People with sickle cell disease have differently shaped red blood cells that do not flow well through blood vessels.
96
Beta-globin is a part of hemoglobin, which carries
oxygen in red blood cells.
97
gene therapy
influencing genes to reduce or eliminate the effects of a genetic disorder
98
Mutations
changes in DNA sequence
99
Point mutations are
substituting one nucleotide for another
100
Frameshift mutations
change in the reading frame of a
gene
101
rearranged DNA mutations
sections of DNA move
102
silent mutation
A mutation that changes a single nucleotide, but does not change the amino acid created.
103
missense mutation
A base-pair substitution that results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid.
104
insertion mutation
a mutation in which one or more nucleotides are added to a gene
105
deletion mutation
a mutation in which one or more pairs of nucleotides are removed from a gene
106
inversion mutation
Mutation in which a chromosome piece reattaches to original chromosome but in reverse orientation
107
translocation mutation
mutation in which one part of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another
108
Mutagen
A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.
109
Viral vector approach
an altered virus inserts healthy versions of the gene into the genome of patients
110
Viral Vector Approach steps
Remove stem cells, which form red blood cells, from the patient.
The virus inserts the normal gene into the stem cells, which get incorporated into the cells' chromosomes.
Culture the cells that now have the normal version of the beta-globin gene.
Introduce the modified cells into the patient.
* The modified cells produce the normal version of beta- globin, preventing symptoms of sickle-cell disease.
111
gene switch approach
focuses on changing gene expression
112
Precise Gene Editing-
113
Precise Gene Editing-
CRISPR is a relatively precise method of making changes to existing genes.
* CRISPR is under development and may be used in the future.
An enzyme cuts DNA at a target sequence, such as beta-globin with the sickle cell mutation.
* The enzyme contains RNA with the a sequence that matches with the target DNA.
The mutated DNA is removed.
* A normal version of the DNA is introduced.
* Repair enzymes insert the normal version of DNA into the chromosome.
Alternatively, CRISPR can be used to inactivate a gene without replacing it with another version.
