Chapter 5 exam Flashcards
1
Q
Who wrote ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’?
A
Garrett Hardin
2
Q
What does ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’ parallel in today’s world?
A
Resource depletion and pollution
3
Q
What are considered ‘the commons’ according to Hardin?
A
Seas, air, water, animals, and minerals
4
Q
What is the external cost of exploiting the commons?
A
A cost paid by all people on Earth
5
Q
List some current environmental problems mentioned in ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’.
A
- Air pollution
- Burning of fossil fuels
- Frontier logging of old-growth forests
- ‘slash and burn’
- Habitat destruction and poaching
- Over-extraction of groundwater and wastewater due to excessive irrigation
- Overfishing
- overpopulation
6
Q
What is one limit of ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’ regarding privatization?
A
Breaking a ‘commons’ into smaller, privately owned parcels doesn’t allow for one policy for entire commons (Dif policy/parcel)
7
Q
How do economic decisions typically differ from environmental decisions?
A
Economic decisions are short term, environmental decisions are long term
8
Q
What could be an incentive for investors to bear a short-term cost for a long-term gain?
A
Incorporating discount rates into the valuation of resources
9
Q
privately owned land is subject to
A
Market pressure
10
Q
What commons are easier to control than others?
A
land, lakes, rangeland, deserts, forests
11
Q
Define clear-cutting
A
all the trees in an area are cut at the same time
12
Q
Environmental impacts of clearcutting
A
- decrease in biodiversity bc loss of habitat
- too warm/dry ground for plants
- no wood in long term
- microclimates changed, affects food webs
- reduced old-growth forests and short-term carbon sinks = co2
- water runoff
13
Q
What is an edge effect?
A
local environment changes along boundary or edge
14
Q
How do edges occur? When do edges begin to fade?
A
Harvesting/clearcutting. When new trees emerge on clear-cut
15
Q
What is deforestation?
A
conversion of forested areas to non forested areas to serve another purpose like grasslands, mining, logging, etc.
16
Q
What causes natural deforestation?
A
fire, glaciation, tsunami, eruption
17
Q
Impacts of deforestation
A
- runoff
- change local climate patterns
- decreasing soil fertility by erosion and dryness from sunlight
- reduced biodiversity and ecological services
- increased habitat fragmentation
- increased co2
- reduced habitat
- extinction of niche species
18
Q
Steps to mitigate deforestation:
A
- uneven aged forest management practices
- educating farmers
- monitor and enforce timber-harvesting laws
- grow timber on longer rotations
- reducing fragmentation
- reducing road building
- reducing clearcutting
- sustainable tree cutting methods (selective and strip)
19
Q
What major shift occurred around 2000 B.C.E. regarding human lifestyle?
A
The transition from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals –> cities and experiment with plants
20
Q
What period is defined as occurring between 1700 and 1900 C.E.?
A
The Agricultural Revolution occurring alongside the Industrial Revolution.
21
Q
What role did mechanization play in the Agricultural Revolution?
A
It changed the way people farmed, now using plows and seed drills.
22
Q
During 1700 - 1900, what were the effects on livestock
A
- Advances in breeding livestock
23
Q
What was a significant outcome of increased agricultural output during the Agricultural Revolution?
A
It made it possible to feed large, urban populations.
24
Q
List some improvements in agricultural methods during the Agricultural Revolution.
A
- Soil preparation
- Fertilization
- Crop care
- Harvesting
25
How did new banking and lending practices impact farmers during the Agricultural Revolution?
They helped farmers afford new equipment and seeds.
26
What new crops were introduced to Europe from trade with the Americas during the Agricultural Revolution?
* Corn
* Potatoes
27
How did railroads contribute to agriculture during the Agricultural Revolution?
They allowed for the distribution of products.
28
What invention allowed farmers to avoid wasting seeds?
The seed drill.
29
What impact did the invention of tractors and other farm machinery have on farming?
It improved efficiency on farms.
30
What period is defined as 1900 C.E. to the present?
The era of mechanization and scientific farming methods
31
What are some benefits of mechanization in agriculture today?
It requires less labor and makes food prices more affordable.
32
When was the first green revolution?
1940s-1980s
33
During the 1940 Green Revolution, what methods were used?
- inorganic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides
- irrigation methods
- high yielding crop seeds that were disease resistant and tolerant
34
When was the second green revolution?
1980s to present
35
During the second green revolution, what shaped agricultural policy, food production, and distribution systems?
new engineering techniques and free-trade agreements
36
Innovations during Second Green Revolution?
- GMOs (golden rice and bt corn)
37
What does agricultural productivity mean?
Greater output with less input, more efficient
38
How does increased agricultural productivity affect food prices?
It tends to stabilize food prices and makes more food available to more people.
39
What issues are often linked with increases in agricultural productivity?
Sustainability, safety, pollution, and demands on finite resources.
40
Define desertification.
The conversion of marginal rangeland or cropland to a more desert-like land type.
41
What are common causes of desertification?
* Overgrazing
* Soil erosion
* Prolonged drought
* Climate change
* Overuse of resources
42
What is the first step in the desertification process?
Overgrazing=eating all available plant life.
43
What happens to soil during the desertification process?
Rain washes it away due to lack of vegetation.
44
What occurs after wells, springs, and other water sources dry up in the desertification process?
Remaining vegetation dies from drought or is taken for firewood.
45
What type of plants may take over as desertification progresses?
Weeds
46
What is overgrazing?
Plants are re-grazed before roots recover, reducing root growth by up to 90%.
47
What happens to roots when plants are grazed severely?
Plants use energy stored in roots for regrowth, leading to root dieback.
48
How does root dieback affect soil?
It adds organic matter to the soil, increasing soil porosity and moisture-holding capacity.
49
List some environmental consequences of overgrazing.
* Decrease in soil porosity
* Decrease in biodiversity
* Stress on desirable plants
* Increased eutrophication
* Reduced pasture productivity
* Disruption of predator-prey relationships
* Damage to riparian areas
* increased silting
* Decrease in soil fertility
* Increased disease incidence in native plants
* Lower infiltration rate and moisture-holding capacity
50
True or False: Overgrazing can lead to an increase in soil fertility.
False
51
What are reasons for increases in agriculture. productivity?
fertilizers and gmos
52
what is an inorganic fertilizer
mined from mineral deposits or manufactured from synthetic compounds
53
list advantages of inorganic fertilizer
- controlled release
- easier
- cheaper
- precise content
-soil organisms don't need to break down matter
54
what is the percentage by weight that nutrients are provided (what do they stand for)
NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)
55
what are disadvantages of inorganic fertilizers
- only offer 3/13 nutrients
- leaching
- lose organic matter over time and organisms
- more inorganic chemicals needed over time for growth as water holding capacity diminishes
- mineral salts not a food source for worms
56
What are the pros of organic fertilizer?
- add organic matter and humus
- feed organisms
- improve moister retention = less leaching
- improve soil quality and structure
57
what does adding organic matter and humus to the soil do?
provides a balanced supply of nutrients and improves root growth
58
What are the cons of organic fertilizer?
- expensive
- labor-intensive
- limited nutrient availability because release depends on climate and microorganism
- pathogenic
59
what are the pros of gmos
- faster growth = greater productivity = greater profit
- lower price of food and increase nutritional content
- reduced pesticide use, less water waste, lower carbon emissions
- higher crop yields
- less spoilage
- able to thrive in poorer quality soil
- less water and fertilizer
- resistant
60
what are the cons of gmos
- sterile seeds
- not proven safe for human consumption
- changes to food supply = toxins and allergies
- less biodiversity
- pesticide-resistant strains
- harm beneficial insect
- harmful mutations
- unknown ecological effects
61
what are rangelands
native grasslands, woodlands, wetlands, and deserts grazed by domestic livestock or wild animal
62
how much do rangelands make up out of the landmass in us
40%
63
What are rangelands primarily managed through?
Livestock grazing and prescribed fire
64
Name one method of rangeland management that helps not exceed carrying capacity.
Controlling the number and distribution of livestock
65
What is the purpose of fencing riparian areas in rangeland management?
To reduce damage to sensitive areas
66
Why are water holes, water tanks, and salt blocks strategically located in rangeland management?
To avoid degrading the environment
67
What is the benefit of moving livestock from one area to another?
To allow the rangeland to recover
68
What is another method of rangeland management involving feed
providing supplemental feed
69
What is done to reduce soil erosion on barren rangeland?
Replanting with native grass seed
70
What is one method for degraded rangeland?
Restoring
71
What is a rangeland management method involving supression.
suprpress growth of invasive plant species
72
What is the fifth-rated threat to endangered plant species in the United States?
Livestock grazing
73
What is slash-and-burn agriculture?
A method of growing food or clearing land by clear-cutting wild or forested land and burning remaining vegetation
74
What is one environmental consequence of slash-and-burn agriculture?
An increase in air pollution
75
What is another consequence of slash-and-burn agriculture?
An increase in dust storms
76
What is a consequence of slash-and-burn agriculture related to soil?
An increase in soil erosion
77
What impact does slash-and-burn agriculture have on water?
An increase in water pollution
78
What is a consequence of slash-and-burn agriculture on wildlife?
Loss of habitat for native species
79
What does the layer of ash from slash-and-burn provide?
A nutrient-rich layer to help fertilize crops
80
What happens to the land after the nutrients are depleted in slash-and-burn agriculture?
Farmers must abandon the land and move to a new plot
81
What is soil erosion
movement of weathered rock or soil components from one place to another
82
What causses soil erosion
flowing water, wind, human activity
83
What are the impacts of soil erosion?
destroys soil profile, decreases water-holding capacity, and increases soil compaction.
84
What is a positive feedback loop in the context of soil erosion?
Soil erosion leads to decreased water retention, causing more runoff and further erosion.
85
How does soil erosion affect crops?
Crops grown in areas of soil erosion frequently suffer from water shortages.
86
What can soil erosion lead to in areas of low precipitation?
Significant droughts.
87
Name poor agricultural techniques that sleads to soil erosion.
- Improper plowing of the soil.
- monoculture
- overgrazing
- removing crop wastes
- row cropping
88
What is soil degradation?
The decline in soil condition caused by improper use or poor management.
89
What are the three types of soil degradation?
- desertification
- salinization
- waterlogging
90
What is desertification
productive potential of arid/semiarid land falls 10%
91
What are the symptoms of desertification?
loss of native vegetation, wind erosion, salization, dropped water table, reduced surface water supply
92
Remedy for desertification
reduce overgrazing, reduce deforestation, reduce destructive methods, plant trees and grasses
93
What is salization
unabsorbed water that evaporates, leaving salts on topsoil
94
What are the symptoms of salinization
stunted crop growth, lower yield
95
remedy for salinization
irrigate or flush with freshwater, use drip irrigation, don't plant crops requiring large amounts of water, plant crops that remove salts, improve drainage, organic/saltfree fertilizer, humus, plant vegetation in coastal areas
96
What is waterlogging?
sturation of soil with water, rise in water table
97
symptoms of waterlogging
saline water envelops deep roots, killing plants, lowers productivity
98
remedy for waterlogging
less water-demanding plants, conservation tillage farming, plant resisant trees with deep roots, take land out, install pumping stations
99
What is tillage
process of plowing and breaking up the soil surface to expose, smooth, and plant
100
Purposes of tillage?
- activate pesticides
- bury heavy crop residue
- incorporate manure and fertilizer into roots
- leveling soil
- turn over cover crops
- seedbed preparation
- soil aeration
- weed supression
101
What is a consequence of tillage relating to poor water infiltration?
accelerating surface runoff, increasing water and wind erosion
102
what is a consequence of tillage relating to organisms
affects soil organisms
103
what is the impact of tillage on surface water quality
deteriorate quality due to increased concentration of sediment
104
what can develop from tillage
hardpan
105
What happens to the topsoil because of tillage
topsoil loss exceed replacement, decreasing soil fertility
106
What is irrigation
applicaiton of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals
107
what are the five types of irrigation
- ditch
- drip
- flood
- furrow (channel)
- spray
108
What is ditch irrigation
ditches dug, seedlings planted in rows
109
How is water involved in ditch irrigation
plants watered via canals which gain water from siphon tubes
110
What is drip irrigation?
water delivered at roots through small tubes that drip water
111
what irrigation method is the most sustainable
drip
112
how does drip irrigation compate to flood irrigation
drip irrigation reduces water consumption 70% and increases crop yields by 90%
113
what are the advantages of drip irrigation?
- efficient
- minimizes water loss
- reduces weed terrain
- applicable on difficult terrain
114
114
what are the disadvantages of drip irrigation
- precise installaton
- high set up costs
- high maintence
115
what is flood irrigation
water pumped or brought to fields
116
What irrigation method is most widely used in less developed countries because it is simple and inexpensive
flood
117
what is furrow irrigation
parallel channels dug along field on a slope where water slides down
118
what is spray irrigation
overhead sprinklers, sprays or guns
119
What are the advantages of sprinklers
covers large areas, applicable on difficult terrain
120
What are the disadvantage of sprinklers
high initial costs, evaporative loss
121
What are the advantages of surface irrigation
inexpensive, need slope
122
What are the disadvantages of surface irrigation
changes to land, re-sloping, large amounts of water, waterlogging
123
what are the types of pesticides
biological, carbamates, fumigants
124
examples of biological pests?
bacteria, ladyugs, wasps, virus
125
what is a method for biological pesticides involving insects
sterile insects compete with wild males, reducing population
126
what are carbamates?
swells tissue of the pests
127
what are fumigants used for?
sterilize soil and prevent pest infestation of stored grain
128
what are inorganic pesticides?
broad based pesticides that are highly toxic
129
What are organic pesticides?
natural poisons from plants
130
What are organophosphates?
extremely toxic but remain in environment for a brief time
131
What does POPS stand for
persistent organic pollutants
132
what are POPs?
an organic group of chemical compounds that don't break down through chemical and biological processes
133
What do POP exposures cause?
declines, disease, abnormailites in wildlife
134
What is an example of POP
DDT pesticide
135
Why are pest numbers increasing?
- genetic resistance
- increased mobility
- reduced crop rotation
- reduced diversity
136
Pros of pesticides
- profitable
- increased food supply = cheap food
- kill pests
- safer, specific, less persistant
- reduce labor cost
- policies
137
What are the cons of pesticides?
- accumulation
- expensive
- external costs to humanity
- inefficiency
- pesticide runoff
- resisitance
- threaten endangered species and us
138
What is pesticide resistance
decreased susceptibility of a pest population to pesticide
138
What is pesticide treadmill
Farmers use more pesticides when pests become resistant, which toxicates animals that eat/compete with pests (magnify problem)
139
What is IPM stand for
integrated pest management
139
What is IPM
ecological pest-control strategy using biological, chemical, and physical methods used in combination or sucession
140
when IPM is used in combination, it can
reduce or eliminate traditional pesticides
141
Method used in IPM
- construction of mechanical controls
- developing gmos that are pest-resistant
- intercropping
- natural insect predators
- pest repellant crops
- polyculture
- monitoring
- release sterilized insects
- rotating crops
- using mulch
- using pheromones
- using pyrethroids
142
IPM can reduce
- bioacculumation
-biomagnification
- resistant pesticides
- destruction of organisms
143
What does CAFOs stand for?
concentrated animal feeding operations
144
What is a CAFO?
intensive animal feeding operation where large numbers of animals are confined in feeding pens for 45+days
145
What is a consequence of CAFOs that affect water quality?
large amounts of manure = risk to water quality
146
pollutants associated with CAFO
- antibiotics
- N & P
- NHS3, CO2, H2S, CH4
- organic matter
- pathogens
-pesticides and hormones
- salts
- solids and trace
147
What are the two main contributors to water pollution caused by CAFOs
N & P
148
water pollution from CAFO can affect both
groundwater and surface water
149
what is the primary cause of gas emissions from CAFOs
decomposition of manure stored in large quantities
150
CAFOS emit strains of
antibiotic resistant bacteria
151
what forms the base of the marine food web
phytoplankton
152
phytoplankton are responsible for half of
global carbon dioxide fixation
153
TF: our oceans are facing depletion of nutrients
true
154
how much of total catch is bycatch
1/3
155
155
what is aquaculture
commercial growing of aquatic organisms for food
156
What is an advantage of aquaculture
produces more grams of protein for less input
157
aquaculture creates
dense monocultures that reduce biodiversity and produces lots of nutrients
158
what are methods to manage marine fishing
- eliminate govt subsidies
- increase marine sanctuaries
- prevent importation
- require labeling of sustainablly raised fish
- require fishing licenses and open inspections
159
what are methods to restore freshwater fish food webs
- control erosion
- control invasive species
- create or restore fish passages
- enforce laws
- plant native vegetation
159
What is mining?
removing mineral resource form the ground
160
What are the environmental effects of mining
waer, displacement of species, reclamation
161
What is processing
removing ore from gangue
162
What are the environmental effects of processing
pollution
163
What is use relating to mining?
distribution to end user
164
what are the environmental effects of use in mining
air pollution involved in transportation
165
what are the 6 types of surface mining
- contour
- dredging
- in situ
- mountaintop
- open pit
- strip
166
what is contour mining?
removing overburden from the seam following contour
167
What is dedging?
method for mining below water table
168
in dredging, suction or scoops are used to
bring material up from water
169
what is in situ
small holes drilled into earth and chemical solvents injected
170
what is mountaintop removal
expose coal seams and dispose of overburden
171
what is open pit mining?
extracting rock/minerals from an open pit when deposits found near surface
172
What is strip mining
exposes coal by removing the soil above each coal sem
172
What are the 3 types of underground mining?
- blast
- longwall
- room and pillar
173
What is blast mining?
uses explosives to break up seam, conveyors and processing center
174
What is longwall mining?
using rotating drum with teeth across coal seam
175
What is room and pillar mining
half of coal left in place as pillars to support roof of active mining area
176
What is the environmental damage caused by mining
- acid drainage
- disrupt habitat and microogranisms
- in situ leaching enter water table
- dust released
- land subsidence
- large consumption and release of water
177
What can we do to mitigate enviornmental damage from mining?
- constructing wetlands
- adding new topsoil and nutrients to improve soil fertility and structure
- neutralizing soil
- recountouring land
- replanting the area with native vegetation
- acidophiles
178
What is urbanization?
movement of people from rural areas to cities
179
What two countries experience the greatest growth in urbanization
Asia and Africa
180
nations with the most rapid increases in [] are generally those with the most rapid [] growth
urbanization, economic
181
what are the pros of urbanization
- better educational delivery system
- better sanitation systems
- high tax revenues
- efficient recycling systems
182
What is a pro of urbanization regarding industry and land
attract industry, less land
183
What is a pro of urbanization relating to transit systems
decrease reliance on fossil fuels
184
What are the cons of urbanization
- overcrowded schools
- greater wastes
- lots of poorness = pressure on social services
- longer commuting times
- pollution
- landfills become scarce
- high crime
- water runoff and flooding
185
What is urbal sprawl
expansion of human populations away form urban areas into low density and car-dependent communities
185
reasons for urban sprawl
need for cars, higher income, tax advantages of buying house, company moves, better school and low crime, aesthetics
186
characteristics of urban sprawl
- job sprawl
- land use conversion
- leap frog development
- low density housing
- single use development
187
What is job sprawl
low density, spread out patterns of employment where jobs in metropolitian area located outside the skirts of area
188
What is land use conversion in urban sprawl
consume productive agricultural land such as forests and other areas
189
What is leap frog development
developments separated by greenbelts
190
how does single use development relate to urban sprawl
commercial, residential, industrial areas seprated from each other
191
what are the environmetal consequences of urbal sprawl
- increase in air temp
- decrease in natural areas
- water pollution increases because of urban runoff
192
timberland is increasing in value at an annual rate of __ but interest rates on loans to purchase the land are ___
3%, 7%
193
For example, between 1950 and 2000, the amount of milk produced per cow rose an average of ___% and corn yields averaged an increase of ___%.
250%, 300%
194
NPK is what percentage of nutrients
12%, 10%, 10%
195
It is estimated that up to___ of foods ni grocery stores contain ingredients that come from genetically modified crops.
80%
196
Currently, livestock
raised for meat on rangelands uses around ___ of global ice-free land and ___ of global freshwa-
ter, while producing about ____ of global greenhouse gas emissions.
30%, 8%, 18%
197
___ percent of all freshwater used on Earth is used for agriculture, but approximately ___ of that water is lost through evaporation, leakage, and seepage.
75%
197
Compared with conventional flood irrigation, drip methods can reduce the volume of water applied ot fields by up to ___, while increasing crop yields up to ___
70, 90
198
the area under drip irrigation has increased by %,
650
199
Almost ___ of the world's farmland that is irrigated yields of the world's food supply.
20%, 40%
200
how much of pesticides reach a pest
5%
201
Globally, ruminant livestock (e.g., cows) are responsible for about ___% of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions released per year, the US making about
35%, 18%
202
Aquatic plants require sunlight and are therefore largely restricted ot shallow coastal waters, which make up les than __% of hte worlds' ocean area yet contain __% of al marine species.
10%, 90%
203
Aquaculture is growing about ___ annually and provides ___of the total food production worldwide,
6%,5%
204
what is smart growth
urban planning and transportation plan to slow urban sprawl and concentrate growth in urban villages
205
What does smart growth value
long-range, regional conderations of sustainaility
206
Sustainable development strategies for smart growth
- mixed use planning
- developing greenbelts
- property tax incentives
- provide subsidies for mass transit systems and riders
- reducing urban blight through green, open spaces
207
what is urban development
process of designing and shaping the physical features of cities and towns with making urban areas attractive, functional, and sustainable
208
what are some urban development strategies:
- using designs that minimze waste
- recycled matierial
- conserving energy
- improved indoor air quality
- buildings near public transportation
- preserve historical and cultural aspects of community
- resource efficient building techniques
- conserving water through xeriscaping
209
what is urban runoff
surface runoff of rainwater caused by urbanization
210
urbanrunoff is the source of
urban flooding and water pollution, lowering of the water table
211
how does urban runoff work
impervious surfaces like roads and sidewalks carry polluted storm water to storm drains instead of into the soil
212
paved surfaces can lead to an
- increased algae
- increase in groundwater depletion
- increase in risk of infections and diseases
- microclimates
- fragmented habitats from urban runoff
- reducing biodiversity and impacting food webs
213
Kepl makes up about ____ of aquaculture output and si used as afood product and as asource of various products used ni the food indus- try.
17%
213
urban runoff results in
- increased erosion and sedimentation in runoff
- increased temp of water in streams and waterways
- runoff containing gas, metals, trash, etc.
214
what is an ecological footprint
measure of human demand on earth's ecosystems and natural capital
214
ecological footprints represnt
amount of biologically productive land and sea necessary to supply our resources consumed
215
wwho has the larges ecological footprint
us
216
216
what is sustainabilioty
capacity for biosphere and humans to coexist through balance of resources
217
what is the ipat formula
explain human consumption in 3 variables
218
each humn on earth uses () gloval hectares of earth resources per person world wide
2.8
218
what are the 3 variable in the ipat formula and what do they mean
s: human population (P), levels of consumption (A), impact humans have on resources (T)
218
what is the ipat formula in formula form
I=PxAxT
219
what are solutions to environmental problems caused by unsustainable resource use and pollution
sustainable agricultural practice, reducing consumption and waste, quotas, water management
220
earth system processes as described by the 9 planetayr sustainability boundaries
- biodiversity loss
- climate change
- freshwater
- land use
- statospheric ozone depletion
221
sustainable agricultural practices emphasize production and food systems that are
- environmentally sound, energy efficient, improved quality of life (long term solutions
222
exammples of sustainable agricultural practices
- ecologically based pest management programs
- diversifying farns
- increasing energy efficiency
- integrated crop and livestock production
- protecting water quality
- reducing tilliage
- rotate crops
- cover crops, green manure, animal manure
- water and nutrient efficieency
223
what are factors that foster sustainable agriculture
-knowledge about resources and processes provided by agriculture
- policies or incentives for producers
- public education to inform consumers and officials about managements practices
224
what are factors that discourage adoption of sustainable agricultural practices?
- agricultural subsidies that favor excessive production of single commodity
- political pressure
- uninformed
- no penalties
225
contour plowing
plowing along contour of land to minimze erosion
226
no till agriculture
soil left undisturbed and residue left
227
planting perennial crops
crops that live for several years
228
what are the advantages of planting perrenial crops
- consistent harvesting
- deepr root systems
- improved soil structure
- saved energy
- split into two or more separate plants
- hardier than annuals
- retain enough foilage to effectivey cover crop
229
What is strip cropping
cultivation in which different crops sown in alternate strips
230
terracing
make or form into a number of flat areas resembling series of steps
231
windbreaks
rows of trees that provide shelter or protection from wind
245
