Chapter 5: Language Flashcards
Rules that govern the meaning of language, as opposed to its structure
Semantic rules
Semantic misunderstandings arise when people assign different meanings to the same words or use different words to describe the same thing
Words, word orders, phrases, or expressions that have more than one commonly accepted definition
Equivocal language
More than one commonly accepted definition: a tube could refer to a test tube, a tube of toothpaste, or a TV
Word orders:
Newspaper headline – family catches fire just in time
Words that gain their meaning through comparison
Relative words
For example, whether or not you attend a large or small school depends on what others are like. Relative words such as fast, slow, smart, stupid, short, or long can only be defined through comparison
The tendency to view people or relationships as unchanging
Static evaluation
Instead of labelling someone as permanently nervous, it’s more accurate to indicate the situations in which the behaviour occurs
Language that is vague and unclear
Abstract language
Language that refers to specific things that people do or say
Behavioural language
A range of more to less abstract terms describing an event or object
Abstraction ladder
Choosing a style that is somewhere between abstract and behavioral. The ladders bottom-rung description is concrete and behavioral, and thus is probably clearer than the top-rung’s abstract injunction.
We often use higher-level abstractions as a verbal shorthand. For instance, we say, “thanks for helping,“ instead of using more specific language, such as, “thanks for washing the dishes, vacuuming the rug, and making the bed”.
Highly abstract language can also lead to blanket judgements and stereotyping – these kind of expressions can cause people to think in generalities, ignoring uniqueness. “Marriage counsellors are worthless“
Rules that govern the way symbols can be arranged, as opposed to the meanings of those symbols
Syntactic rules
Yoda from Star Wars: “your father he is“
Linguistic rules that help communicators understand how messages may be used and interpreted in a given context
Pragmatic rules
Denotative refers to the dictionary meaning of a word; connotative refers to what a particular word or phrase means to you
They are typically unstated
A boss saying “you look nice today“ could have several interpretations: a simple complement, a come on, or a suggestion that she didn’t normally look nice.
A language style in which speakers defer to listeners by using hedges, hesitations, intensifiers, polite forms, tag questions, and disclaimers
Deferential language
Give an example of a hedge as a type of deferential language
“I’m kind of disappointed“ “I think we should“ “I guess I’d like to“
kinda, should, guess
Less direct or vague words
Give an example of hesitations in deferential language
“Uh, can I have a minute of your time?“
“Well, we could try this idea“
Uh, well, er
Pauses
Give an example of intensifiers in deferential language
“I’m really glad to see you”“I’m not very hungry“
Really, very
Add emphasis
Give an example of polite forms in deferential language
“Excuse me, sir“
Sir, ma’am
Give an example of tag questions in deferential language
“It’s about time we got started, isn’t it?“ “Don’t you think we should give it another try?“
Isn’t it, don’t you think
These insert and interrogative question into a declarative message
Give an example of disclaimers in deferential language
“I probably shouldn’t say this, but“ “I’m not really sure, but“
Remove responsibility for the message
Conclusions that are arrived at from an interpretation of evidence
Inferences
What are two types of disruptive language or linguistic habits that can cause disagreements?
Fact-opinion confusion – occurs when inferences, or assumptions, are presented as facts. Inferences are conclusions based on the speakers beliefs while facts, on the other hand, can be verified as true or false.
Example: fact – you forgot my birthday
Opinion – you don’t care about me
Better approach is to use perception checking
Emotive language – appears to describe something but really announces the speakers positive or negative attitude toward it. Can also be expressed nonverbally, for example through facial expressions, vocal expressions, and gestures
For example:
If you approve you say thrifty, if you disapprove you say cheap
If you approve you say cautious, if you disapprove you say cowardly
To avoid arguments, it’s better to describe the person, thing, or idea in neutral terms and to label your opinions as such- instead of saying “quit making sexist remarks“ say “I really don’t like it when you call us girls instead of women“
Language that conveys the speakers attitude rather than simply offering an objective description
Emotive language
Name five types of statements or language that reflects whether the speaker is willing to take responsibility for their beliefs and feelings. The language of responsibility
“It” statements
“But“ statements
Questions
“I“ and “you“ language
“We“ language
The language of responsibility. Statements that replace the personal pronoun I with a less immediate word it, often with the effect of reducing the speakers acceptance of responsibility for the statements
“It“ statements
And “it bothers me when you’re late“ instead of “I’m worried when you’re late“
“I“ language clearly identifies the speaker as the source of a message. Communicators who use “it”statements attribute ownership to some unidentified source. Avoids taking a position
A statement that describes the speakers reaction to another person‘s behaviour without making judgements about the behaviours worth
“I“ language
“I am bored in the class“
The language of responsibility. Statements in which the word but cancels out the expression that preceded it
“But“ statements
“You’re really a great person, but I think we should stop seeing each other”“you’ve done good work for us, what we’re going to have to let you go“
This approach can be a face-saving strategy but when the goal is to be absolutely clear, it’s better to just state the central idea without the distraction of the “but“ statement
The language of responsibility. Some of these are sincere requests for information, while others are just a way to avoid making a declaration. Indirect ________ can be a tactful way to approach a difficult topic, but when used unnecessarily, it can be a way to avoid saying what you mean
Questions
“How many textbooks are assigned in that class?“ May hide the statement “I’m afraid to get into a class with too much reading“
“Are you doing anything tonight?“ Can be a less risky way of saying “I want to go out with you tonight”