Chapter 5: Loco 1 and 2

Question 1

Locomotion

Answer 1

Is the act of moving or the capability to move from place to place

Question 2

What affects the type of locomotion that can be complete?

Answer 2

interacting constraints

Question 3

The first voluntary locomotion: 4 steps

Answer 3

1. Crawling with the chest and stomach on the floor
2. Low creeping with the stomach off the floor but the legs working together (symmetrically)
3. Rocking back and forth in the high creep position
4. Creeping with the legs and arms woking alternately

Question 4

Is there a strict progression for crawling?

Answer 4

No

Question 5

How many crawling positions observed?

Answer 5

multiple

Question 6

Do some infants skip directly to hand and knees?

Answer 6

Yes

Question 7

What does the amount of experience in early forms of crawling predict?

Answer 7

The speed and efficiency of later forms

Question 8

What kind of infants crawl earlier?

Answer 8

Smaller, slimmer, more well-proportioned infant crawl earlier than do larger, chubbier infants

Question 9

Crawling on stomach:

Answer 9

Prone progression
Belly on the supporting surface
Arms and legs move in a reciprocal pattern

Question 10

Creeping:

Answer 10

Prone progression
Belly lifted off the supporting surface
Arms and legs move reciprocally

Question 11

Quadrupedal:

Answer 11

walking on hands and feet

Question 12

Bipedal locomotion:

Answer 12

Two legs for walking

Question 13

After standing is accomplished what comes after?

Answer 13

supported cruising

Question 14

What is supported cruising?

Answer 14

First bipedal locomotion
Hands supporting on furniture (awareness of affordance?)
Generally sideways, both arms and legs provide support

Question 15

When does unsupported walking happen compared to standing alone?

Answer 15

1 month after infant cant stand alone

Question 16

Sensory contraints at the phase of unsupported walking?

Answer 16

vestibular, visual and proprioceptive

Question 17

How many months old does an infant usually take 1st steps alone?

Answer 17

11 months

Question 18

When is early walking usually achieved?

Answer 18

Achieve independent walking generally between 10-15 months

Question 19

What can predict the onset of independent walking?

Answer 19

Muscle mass at 6 months may predict the onset of independent walking:
Larger muscle mass may delay a acquisition
Also, infants who are smaller boned or have linear frames may acquire this milestone

Question 20

A beginner walker: movement patterns

Answer 20

short stride and high- guard arm position

Question 21

The high arm guide is because Moment of inertia, what is that?

Answer 21

a measure of resistance of the body (a body’s tendency to resist angular acceleration)

Question 22

Characteristics of early walking (6)

Answer 22

1. Balance easily lost, frequent falls. Compensate, large base of support, short steps
2. little if any trunk rotation
3. contact with ground is flat footed. One knee locked, other bent
4. each step independent of other
5. out-toeing. Minimal ankle movement, slight pelvic tilt
6. High guard position. Limbs fixed do not swing

Question 23

At approximately 1 years old what happens with locomotion?

Answer 23

Has locomotion on two legs and maintain balance during squat positions
This is important because
First time doing two (reasonably complex) things at once
Allows for extended environmental exploration (squat and reach (12m))

Question 24

Walking: define

Answer 24

Is defined by a phasing relationship between the legs, as well as a period of double support (when both feet are on the ground), followed by a period of single support

Question 25

Inter-limb coordination:

Answer 25

timing b/w the legs/feet at this point of footfalls (steps quickly with other foot... then slowly in stepping with the other)

Question 26

stand/stance:

Answer 26

time when the foot is on the ground

Question 27

swimg

Answer 27

time the foot is in the air

Question 28

clark et al. (1988) study of walking shows?

Answer 28

variability in gait as defined by temporal phasing, increasing proficiency with age

Question 29

Characteristics of proficient walkers

Answer 29

Proficient walkers tend to give up some stability for additional mobility an speed Increase in stride length Flat-footed changes to heel-to-toe (plantigrade gait) Reduction of base of support Pelvis begins to rotate Oppositional arm swing, and well as arm-leg movements

Question 30

Mature walking patter at what age?

Answer 30

~4-5 years

Question 31

How does walking become more efficient?

Answer 31

1. Stride width decreases Base of support os decreased to within the approximate lateral dimension of teh trunk, which increases mobility by allowing for greater stride length 2. Flat - footed steps disappear (foot contact) Eventually replaced by plantigrade gait Heel - to - toe pattern Heel strike in front of body with toes in the air, followed by toe contact, with the heel lifting during the maintained toe contact Each leg spends 60% of time in stance, 40% in swing phase) 3. Eversion of the foot decreases (foot angle) Feet evenly point straight ahead 4. Pelvic rotation increases Allows full leg motion and oppositional movement of the upper body 5. High-guard position decreases Eventually replaced by a reciprocal arm swing

Question 32

Walking: Arm swing of a new walker

Answer 32

fixed arm position important for reducing degrees of freedom

Question 33

Walking: Arm swing of a profiecnt walker?

Answer 33

arm swing counterbalances truck rotation around the vertical axis, degrees of freedom are released

Question 34

what is the first form of upright, bipedal locomotion

Answer 34

walking

Question 35

Walking is defined by:

Answer 35

Nearly equal phasing between the legs | Period of double support (both feet on the ground followed by a period of single support)

Question 36

Characteristics of early walking:

Answer 36

Maximizes stability and balance over mobility Arms are in high-guard Feet are out-toes and spread wide Independent steps are taken

Question 37

Characteristics of proficiency walking:

Answer 37

``` Trading stability for mobility Stride length increases Base of support is reduced Pelvis is roasted Opposition (arms to legs) occurs ```

Question 38

Developmental changes in walking: Early childhood

Answer 38

By age 4, essential components of an advanced walk are present

Question 39

Developmental changes in walking: older adulthood

Answer 39

``` Maximizing stability Out-toeing increases Stride length decreases Pelvic rotation decreases Speed decreases Objects are used as balance aids ```

Question 40

Rate limiters in later walking:

Answer 40

Any of the changes associated with the aging process can act as rate limiters Most obvious, changes in structural constraints can influence walking Rate limiters are strength (to support the body on the leg) and balance

Question 41

When does running occur?

Answer 41

Occurs 6-7 months after walking starts

Question 42

Running is defined by?

Answer 42

50% phasing between the legs | Flight phase followed by single support

Question 43

Early Running:

Answer 43

``` Stability over mobility Return of old behaviours Arms in high guard Limited range of motion Short stride length Little rotation ```

Question 44

Proficient running:

Answer 44

``` Less stability, more mobility Increased stride length Planar movement Narrow base of support Trunk rotation Opposition ```

Question 45

Developmental changes of Running: Early Running

Answer 45

As children grow, qualitative changes in running patterns Progressed physical growth and maturation, generally result in improved quantitative measures of running

Question 46

Developmental changes of Running: Later Running

Answer 46

Patterns help increase stability and balance Decreases appear in: stride length, range of motion, # of strides, speed Rate controllers: balance and strength

Question 47

Rate controllers in later running:

Answer 47

Running required greater generation of force and ability to balance Smaller changes in constraints can affect later running An individual may have the ability to run, but may not have the opportunity to do so, or chooses not to

Question 48

Jump:

Answer 48

person propels self off ground with one or two feet; lands on two feet

Question 49

Hop?

Answer 49

Hop: person propels self off ground with one foot; lands on same foot

Question 50

Leap:

Answer 50

Leap: Person proels self off ground with one foot, extends flight period, and lands on opposite foot

Question 51

When does jumping begin?

Answer 51

Children often begin simple jumping before age 2

Question 52

Early Jumping:

Answer 52

``` People can perform either vertical or horizontal (standing long) jump Early Characteristics: Jumping only vertically One-foot takeoff or landing No or limited preparatory movements ```

Question 53

Proficient Jumping:

Answer 53

preparatory crouch maximizes takeoff force Both feet leave ground at the same time Arm swing used during jump Vertical jump: force is directed downward ; body is extended Horizontal jump: force is directed down and backward; knees are flexed during flight

Question 54

Developmental changes of jumping:

Answer 54

Continuous growth in body size and strength contribute to quantitative improvements It is not guaranteed that very child will eventually master jumping

Question 55

Rate limiters for Jumping:

Answer 55

developmental of enough force to bring own body into the air from a still position

Question 56

What level of difficulty is a standing long jump?

Answer 56

6- standing long jump

Question 57

What level of difficulty is a running long jump?

Answer 57

7

Question 58

When does hopping start?

Answer 58

After jumping

Question 59

Early characteristics of hoping:

Answer 59

Support leg is lifted rather than used to project body Arms are inactive Swing leg is held rigidly in front of the body

Question 60

Proficient hopping:

Answer 60

Swing leg leads hip and moves through full range of motion Support eg extends fully at hip Oppositional arm movement generates force Support leg is flexed on landing

Question 61

Developmental changes in Hopping:

Answer 61

Few children under 3 can hop repeatedly Adaptations of the neuromuscular system that moderates the force of landing This is due (at least in part) to an interaction of the individual constraints in the body, and within the framework of the principles of motion

Question 62

Rate controllers in hopping:

Answer 62

Depends on the postural systems ability to balance the body on one limb for a succession of hops Ability to generate enough force to lift the body with one limb, recover and quickly generate enough force to hop again

Question 63

What do Galloping, sliding and skipping involve?

Answer 63

A combination of stepping, hopping and leaping

Question 64

Gallop and slides are?

Answer 64

Asymmetric

Question 65

Gallop?

Answer 65

forward step on one foot and leap with the other

Question 66

Slide?

Answer 66

sideways step with one foot, lead with the other

Question 67

Skip?

Answer 67

Symmetric, alternating step hops on one foot then one on the other

Question 68

Early Galloping, sliding, skipping:

Answer 68

The arms are no longer needed for balance In skipping, the arms swing rhythmically in opposition to the legs and provide momentum Child can use the arms for another purpose during galloping and sliding such as clapping

Question 69

Developmental changes in Galloping, sliding, skipping:

Answer 69

galloping is the first to emerge (around 2-3 years old) sliding comes next skipping is usually last to emerge (around 4-7 years old)

Question 70

Rate limiters for Galloping, sliding, skipping:

Answer 70

coordination