Chapter 7: Human Memory Flashcards
0
Q
True or false, our deepest sense of self relies on our memories
A
True
1
Q
What is memory? What does it do to essential info?
A
Allows us to acquire, store, and retrieve essential info
2
Q
Where are memories stored in the brain?
A
The hippocampus
3
Q
What part of the brain is referred to as the “loading dock” of memories?
A
The hippocampus
4
Q
What happens when there is an increase in hippocampus activity?
A
There’s an increase in retrieval
5
Q
Memory depends on encoding.. What are the three types of encoding?
A
Semantic– what it means to you
Acoustic– simply listening
Visual– seeing knowledge
6
Q
Memory depends on encoding storing, and recalling. What are the differences between recalling, retrieving, and recognition?
A
Recalling– to locate info and bring it to consciousness
Retrieval– recalling with little assistance
Recognition– Retrieval is aided by cues
7
Q
What type of recalling style do multiple choice tests use?
A
Recognition
Retrieval is aided by cues
8
Q
What are the three types of memory?
A
Episodic– memory for a specific event eg. what you had for lunch
Semantic– general, non-specific eg “I know that..”
Proceduaral– remembering how to do something eg. tying a shoe
9
Q
What is the difference between an explicit memory and an implicit memory?
A
Explicit– conscious effort to remember something. used on exams
Implicit– remembering something w/o conscious retrieval effort. (tying shoes)
10
Q
Explain the levels or processing model of memory
A
most important determinant of memory is how info is processed when it is received
The more you think about something, the more solid the memory is
maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal
11
Q
Explain the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal (pertains to levels of processing model of memory)
A
Maintenance rehearsal– repeating things over and over till
Elaborative rehearsal– studying for a little bit every day, over a longer period of time
12
Q
Explain the information processing model of memory
A
Sensory memory, then short-term, then long-term
sensory lasts a few seconds, short term lasts a few mins, long term lasts forever
13
Q
Explain “chunking” information
A
We can remember up to 7 things at once, we chunk information so we can remember more
14
Q
True or false, long term memory is prone to distortion
A
True
15
Q
What are the two types of retrieval cues that help us retrieve stored information?
A
Context dependent– if you recall where you learned info
State dependent– If you were drunk while learning, you’ll recall it better if you are drunk
16
Q
True or false, Deja-vu is a function of reduced cues
A
True
17
Q
Why do we forget? Give 3 reasons
A
1– Decay: we forget over time
2– Interferance: old and new information interfere with eachother
3– repression: we’d rather forget something
18
Q
What are the two types of Interferance of memory?
A
Retroactive– new information interferes with old information
Proactive– old information interferes with old information
19
Q
What are the two types of amnesia related to repression of memories?
A
Psychogenic amnesia– something embarrassing we prefer to forget
Traumatic amnesia– controversial. Forgetting because of trauma
20
Q
What are iatrogenic disorders?
A
Disorders that develop as a result of treatment
21
Q
What does attention have to do with memory?
A
You have to pay attention to something if you intend to remember it
22
Q
Does attention “filter” early or late?
A
Both!
23
Q
True or false, the location of our attention filter depends on the cognitive load of current information processing
A
True
24
True or false, complicated, high-load tasks that consume much of our attentional capacity, selection tends to occur early (attention)
true
25
What is structural encoding?
shallow encoding, what something looks like
| remembering physical structure
26
What is the levels-of-processing theory?
deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes
27
What type of encoding leads to deeper processing?
Semantic encoding
28
True or false, semantic encoding can often be enhanced through elaboration
True
29
What is elaboration?
linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
eg. applying something you're reading to your life
making associations
30
Explain Paivio's Dual-Encoding Theory
memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall.
eg. juggler-dress OR truth-think
31
Is attention inherently selective?
Yes
32
What is self-referent encoding?
process that involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant
think: Remembering bus stops that you use, or where your friends get on
33
What is sensory memory?
Information preserved in it's original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a few seconds
eg. letting a sound linger for a few seconds after it's happened
34
How long does short-term memory last, what is it?
About 20 seconds, the ability to store un-rehearsed information
35
How can you make short-term memory last longer?
rehearsal
36
What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?
Maintenance-- remembering a list of words
| Elaborative-- focusing on the meaning of the list of words
37
What two things contribute to loss of information from short-term memory?
Decay and interference
38
What does Miller mean when he refers to "The Magical Number Seven?"
People can only remember up to 7 items of unfamiliar material
39
What does Cowen think about "The Magical Number Seven?"
He thinks it's actually ~4, new research is leading to this as well
40
Today, do we lean more towards "The magical 7" or 4 plus or minus one theory of STM storage? Why?
4, because old studies didn't do much to protect people from chunking information
41
How can you increase the capacity of your STM?
combining stimuli into larger units-- think: Chunking information
42
What does Baddeley mean by the term "working memory?"
a limited storage system that temporarily stores info by providing an interface between perception, memory, and action
43
What are the four components of Baddely's "working memory" theory?
1-- Phonological loop: repeating/rehearsal
2-- Visuospatial Sketchpad: temp. holds images, allows you to manipulate
3-- Central Executive: controls attention
4-- Episodic Buffer: integrates info and works between working mem and long term mem
44
What is working memory capacity?
one's ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention
45
True or false, working memory capacity is a stable trait that appears to be influenced by heredity
True
46
True or false, working memory capacity can be influenced to a considerable degree by situational factors such as worry or pressure
True
47
True or false, working memory capacity plays a fundamental role in complex cognitive processes and intelligence
True
48
What is long-term memory?
unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time. It is considered permanent
49
Most theorists believe that things stored in long-term memory store are permanent.. what do they say forgetting is a result of?
forgetting only occurs only because people sometimes cannot retrieve the needed information from LTM
50
What are flashbulb memories?
unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events
eg. where were you when you heard about the death of MJ?
51
What is clustering?
The tendency to remember similar or related items in groups
52
What is a conceptual hierarchy?
multilevel classification system baed on common properties among items
think: dogs, then breeds etc
53
What is a schema?
Organized cluster or knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from a previous experience with the object or event
think: profs office, you think most offices have books and desks
54
True or false, people are more likely to remember things that are consistent with their schemas than things that are not
True
55
True or false, people sometimes exhibit better recall of things that violate their schema-based expectations
True
56
How is anxiety linked to relational schemas?
If you go into a situation with expectations about something, you may look more into cues
57
What is a semantic network?
nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts... think spider web map
58
What is spreading activation?
When someone thinks of a word, they typically think of related words
59
What is parallel distributed processing?
simultaneous processing of the same information spread across neurons
60
What is the parallel distributed processing/connectionist model of memory?
cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation
| and specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation
61
What is the difference between semantic networks and connectionist networks?
semantic- SPECIFIC NODES represent specific pieces of knowledge
connectionist- a piece of knowledge is represented by a PATTERN across a an entire network
INFO LIES IN THE CONNECTIONS (PDP)
62
True or false, according to Baddely, working memory (STM) includes a visuospatial sketchpad, an executive control system, and an episodic buffer
True
63
What does the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon reveal about memory?
That our retrieval fails us sometimes
64
What is the encoding specificity principle?
your memory for information would be better when the conditions during encoding and retrieval were similar
65
What is Tulving known for?
Encoding specificity principle
66
True or false, hypnosis can enhance retrieval
False
67
What is Fergus Craik known for?
If you encoded intoxicated, your recall should be facilitated by attempting to retrieve the information while in a similar state
68
What did Eich have to say about Fergus' theory of "internal states and retrieval?"
Your retrieval would be best if you match your internal state during encoding
69
What did Bartlett have to say about memory and recall?
| War of the Ghosts Story
Memories are simply reconstructed to fit our schemas
70
What do modern schema theories emphasize?
The reconstruction aspect of memory
71
When does Loftus' theory of "misinformation effect" occur?
the misinformation effect occurs when participants' recall of an event they witness is altered by introducing misleading post-event information
72
What are the three states of the misinformation effect?
1-- view an event
2-- exposed to info about this event, some is misleading
3-- recall of original event is tested to see if the misinformation has made an impact
73
How reliable is the misinformation effect?
Very, has been replicated many times
| Challenges the validity of memory
74
What is reality monitoring?
the process of deciding whether memories are based on external (perception of events) or internal sources (thoughts and imaginations)
75
True or false, in reality monitoring, people are more likely to think that the event happened if there were strong contextual cues and sensory cues
True
76
What is source monitoring? (Johnson)
making attributions about the origins of memories
| "where did I see that? What newspaper?"
77
What is source monitoring error?
when a memory derived from a source is mislabeled as coming from another source
78
What did Ebbinghaus discover about how quickly people forget?
That most forgetting happens rapidly after learning something
(criticized for forgetting curve being unusually steep
79
What are three methods for measuring retention?
Recall measure
Recognition measure
Relearning measure
80
What is retention?
The proportion of material remembered
81
What is a recall measure of retention?
requires subjects to reproduce information on their own without cues
think: blank sheet of paper.. write words that you remember
82
What is a recognition measure of retention?
requires subjects of select previously learned information from an array of options
think: multiple choice questions
83
Are multiple choice tests (recognition) easier than a recall test?
No
84
What is a relearning measure of retention?
requires a subject to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned before
85
Explain Tulving and Thompsons theory of encoding specificity
a good retrieval cue is consistent with the original encoding of the information to be recalled.
sound of a word emphasized during encoding, an effective retrieval cue should emphasize the sound of a word
86
What is transfer appropriate processing?
initial processing of info is similar to the type of processing needed for the second measure of retention
retrieval failures are more likely when there is a poor fit between the processing done during encoding and the processing needed by the measure of retention
87
True or false, according to the "Alterations in synaptic transmission" perspective, specific memories depend on biochemical changes that occur at specific synapses
True
88
True or false, according to Thompson, memories may depend on localized neural circuits in the brain
True
89
True or false, evidence on long-term potentiation supports the idea that memory traces consist of specific neural circuits
True
90
What is long-term potentiation?
long lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific pathway
91
True or false, long term potentiation involves changes at both the post and presynaptic neurons
True
92
True or false, according to Becker, newly formed neurons are initially more excitable than mature neurons
True
93
True or false, neurogenesis provides the brain with neurons of different ages, which allows for memories to be timestamped
True, that is the theory.. though it is still highly controversial
94
What is retrograde amnesia?
loss of memories for events that occured prior to the onset of amnesia
95
What is anterograde amnesia?
loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia..
like after hitting head, may find it harder to remember people that she meets, where she parked her car
96
What do most scientists refer to as the "medial temporal lobe memory system?" What does it do?
the hippocampal region and adjacent areas in the cortex
| important role in long term memory
97
Are memories stored in the hippocampal region and the adjacent areas? (medial temporal love memory system)
Probably not, but it does play a key role in consolidation of memories
98
True or false, most consolidation happens during sleep
True
99
Lately, neuroscientists have found that the ______ is critical to the formation of memories
The amygdala
100
True or false, recently, we have started to focus our studies on working memory, opposed to long-term memory
True
101
True or false, many lines of research suggests that the prefrontal cortex contributes to working memory
True
102
Where are the storage and rehearsal facets of the phonological loop located? Left or right hemisphere?
left hemisphere
103
What is the visuospatial sketchpad thought to depend on? activity in the ____ hemisphere
Right hemisphere
104
True or false, changes in hormone levels and protein synthesis can affect memory
True
105
What is the difference between implicit and explicit memory?
Implicit: unintentional memory, like remembering how to tie shoes
Explicit: when you actively try to remember something
106
What is the difference between declarative or non-declarative memory?
Declarative: handles factual information (names, events)
| Non-declarative: handles memory for actions, skills or conditioned responses (how to tie shoes, how to type)
107
True or false, declarative memory is more vulnerable to forgetting
True
108
True or false, declarative memory is handled by the medial temporal love memory system
True
109
True or false, although we don't know much about where nondeclarative memory comes from, but we believe that the cerebellum and the amygdala contribute
True
110
What is episodic memory?
memory for a specific event, like what you ate for lunch
111
What is semantic memory?
general knowledge, not specific
"i know that" "dogs have 4 legs"
you know something, but you don't now where it came from
112
What is procedural memory?
remembering how to do something like tie your shoes
113
What is the difference between prospective and retrospective memory?
Prospective: remembering to do something in the future, walking dog
Retrospective: remembering events from from past or previously learned information
114
Is it true that declarative memory handles explicit memory and procedural memory handles implicit memory?
yes
115
When you remember chronological recollections of personal experiences, what type of memory is used?
episodic
116
When you remember general knowledge that isn't tied to a specific time of learning what type of memory are you using?
semantic
117
The cocktail party effect provides evidence for what model of attention?
Late selection model
118
True or false, when you accidentally tell someone the same story a second time, you are making a source-monitoring error
True
119
What is proactive interference?
When old information interferes with new information
120
What is the serial-position effect?
Forgetting things in the middle of lists and such
121
Explain the hindsight bias
the tendency to mould one's interpretation of the past to fit the way events actually turned out
