Chapter 7 - The Body Can Affect Itself From Infection Flashcards

Question

List, explain, example - the transfer of disease between people (6)

Answer 1

1. TRANSMISSION BY CONTACT - involves the spread of actual PHYSICAL CONTACT - DIRECT - actually touching an infected person - INDIRECT - touching an object that has been touched by an infected individual EXAMPLE - SKIN INFECTIONS AND SEXUALLY TRANSMISSIBLE INFECTIONS 2. INGESTION of food/drink CONTAMINATED with PATHOGENS may result in disease. EXAMPLE DYSENTERY, TYPHOID FEVER, SALMONELLA FOOD POISONING 3. TRANSFER OF BODILY FLUIDS - from one person to another can result in the transmission of a number of infections - when BLOOD and other BODY FLUIDS from an infected person come into CONTACT WITH MUCOUS MEMBRANES (nose, mouth, throat, and genitals), or bloodstream of uninfected via a NEEDLE, STICK, BREAK-IN SKIN. Then pathogens may enter the body EXAMPLES - HIV, HEPATITIS B&C 4. INFECTION BY DROPLETS - Tiny droplets of moisture-containing pathogenic organisms are emitted when breathing, talking, sneezing, or coughing. - maybe breathed in by others, or may settle in food/utensils to be later ingested with food. - EXAMPLES COVID-19, EBOLA, MUMPS, COLDS, INFLUENZA 5. AIRBORNE TRANSMISSION - MOISTURE in EXHALED droplets evaporates, many bacteria are killed but VIRUSES AND SOME BACTERIA REMAIN VISIBLE AND CAN CAUSE INFECTION WHEN INHALED. - these particles are LIGHTER, they remain viable for a greater distance than those transmitted by droplets MEASLES, MUMPS, AND CHICKENPOX 6. TRANSMISSION BY VECTORS - transfer of pathogens by other animals such as insects, ticks, or mites - some transfer DIRECTLY, others INDIRECTLY (HOUSE FLIES) - may spread by the pathogen to food and water, which is ingested. - many vectorborne diseases are spread by a specific vector EXAMPLE - MALARIA AND DENGUE FEVER ARE SPREAD BY MOSQUITOES, TRYPANOSOMIASIS (African sleeping fever) is spread by the TSETE FLY - LYME DISEASE is spread by TICKS, - BUBONIC PLAGUE - FLEAS FROM RATS, MICE

Answer 2

The body has several defences that protect it against invasion by pathogenic micro-organisms ALLOWS : 1. PREVENTS ENTRANCE 2. DEALT WITH: BEFORE INVASION CAUSES ISSUES (illness and sickness from infection and disease spread) 3. IF ILL, the. RECOVER without medical intervention

Answer 3

1. Non-specific: works on/against all pathogens - 1st line in defense 2. Defence directed at a particular pathogen

Answer 4

1. EXTERNAL DEFENCES 2. PROTECTIVE REFLEXES 3. INTERNAL NON-SPECIFIC: - PHAGOCYTOSIS - INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE - FEVER 4. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Answer 5

- All non-specific - act as BARRIERS - stop pathogens and foreign particles from entering the body

Answer 6

* BARRIERS 1. SKIN 2. MUCUS 3. HAIRS 4. CILIA 5. MOVEMENT OF FLUIDS * CHEMICAL MEDIATORS 6. ACIDS 7. LYZOZYMES 8. CERUMEN 9. SALIVA

Answer 7

EXAMPLE IMPERVIOUS MEMBRANE OF THE SKIN 1. COVERING THE OUTSIDE OF THE BODY 2. STOPPING ENTRY OF MICRO-ORGANISMS: PROVIDED IT IS NOT BROKEN BY CUTS AND ABRASIONS 3. AT OPENINGS OF THE SKIN (mouth, eyes, nose, anus) SPECIAL PROTECTION is PROVIDED, by other defenses 4. Huge NUMBER OF BACTERIA LIVE ON THE SKIN ALL THE TIME - normal healthy bacteria occupy the area so POTENTIAL PATHOGENS find it DIFFICULT to BECOME ESTABLISHED Other protective mechanisms 5. Oily SECRETION = CEBUM - is antiseptic - produced in the oil glands in the skin - contains substances that kill some pathogenic bacteria 6. SWEAT - secreted onto the skin - contains salts + fatty acids - prevents growth of many micro-organisisms

Answer 8

Mucous membranes 1. Lines the cavities of the body that open to the exterior 2. secretes mucous 3. traps particles; inhibits entry of microorganisms to organs FOUND IN digestive, reproductive, urinary tracts TO BE PROTECTED - VAGINA - STOMACH

Answer 9

Found in the NASAL CAVITY (NOSE) AND EARS - in nose hairs + a layer of mucus trap 90% of particles inhaled when breathing

Answer 10

1. Tiny hair-like projections from cells that are capable of a BEATING MOTION 2. FOUND - MUCOUS MEMBRANES lining the NASAL CAVITY, TRACHEA + OTHER AIR PASSAGES 3. THE BEATING CILIA MOVES MUCUS, CONTAINING TRAPPED PARTICLES AND MICRO-ORGANISMS TOWARDS THE THROAT, WHERE IT MAY BE COUGHED UP OR SWALLOWED

Answer 11

1. Stomach juices - strongly acidic to kill bacteria taken in from food or those contained in mucous swallowed from nose/windpipe - gastric mucosa prevents it from eating itself up and prevents infection 2. vagina acid secretions which reduced the growth of microorganisms - acidic lining and mucous plug protects 3. urine and sweat on the skin is also acidic

Answer 12

1. enzyme that kills bacteria 2. found in the eyes: protected by the flushing action of tears which contain this enzyme 3. Also found in the saliva, sweat, secretions of the nose, and tissue fluid

Answer 13

EARWAX 1. protects the outer ear against infection by some bacteria 2. slightly acidic + contains lysozyme enzyme

Answer 14

in the mouth cavity, has pH that is non-neutral (6.2ish - weak base) to kill pathogens via corrosion

Answer 15

1. Flushing actions of bodily fluids helps keeps some areas relatively clean/free of pathogens 2. eg. urine flowing through urethra has cleaning action 3. prevents bacterial growth and helps to stop bacteria reaching the bladder and kidney 4. Women have shorter urethra than men, so they are more prone and ten to suffer more bladder infections 5. EXAMPLES = TEARS, SWEAT, SALIVA, URINE

Answer 16

A reflex is AUTOMATIC, INVOLUNTARY RESPONSE TO A STIMULUS - against injury (Blink reflex) - infection (vomiting) There are 4 reflexes to help protect against infection.

Answer 17

1. Sneezing - stimulus is IRRITATION OF NASAL CAVITY - may be CAUSED BY NOXIOUS FUMES OR DUST PARTICLES which are likely to be carrying microorganisms - It is the FORCEFUL EXPULSION OF AIR FROM THE LUNGS CARRYING MUCUS, FOREIGN PARTICLES, AND IRRITATIATING GASES OUT THROUGH NOSE AND MOUTH. 2. Coughing - stimulus is IRRITATION in the LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT - the BRONCHI and BRONCHIOLES - similar to sneezing in manner: air forced from the lungs to try to remove the irritant - AIR DRIVES MUCUS + FOREIGN MATTER UP THE TRACHEA THROUGH THE NOSE AND MOUTH 3. VOMITING - psychological stimulus: excessive stretching of the stomach and bacterial toxins can all induce vomiting - contraction of muscles in the abdomen and the diaphragm, (not stomach) expels the stomach contents up to and out via mouth. 4. Diahorria - stimulus is the irritation of the small +large intestines by bacteria, virus, or protozoans - causing increased contractions of the muscles of the wall of the intestines so that the irritant is removed as quickly as possible - material does not stay in large intestines for long, enough for water to be absorbed, so faeces are very watery.

Answer 18

if pathogens get bast external defenses, there are internal non-specific defenses that work to eliminate them includes - Phagocytosis - Inflammatory response - Fever

Answer 19

The process eliminates many pathogens before the infection has a chance to take hold. - organisms that penetrate our external defences are attacked

Answer 20

specialized white blood cells or LEUCOCYTES that ENGULF AND DIGEST MICRO-ORGANISMS AND CELL DEBRIS 1. MONOCYTES AND MACROPHAGES 2. NEUTROPHILIS 3. DENDRITE CELLS

Answer 21

1. MONOCYTES AND MACROPHAGES - when the tissue becomes infected or inflamed MONOCYTES leave the bloodstream and enter the tissue - they differentiate into macrophages which are phagocytic cells * ** some move through tissues looking fro and destroying pathogens * ** others are situated in one place and only deal with the pathogens that come to them 2. NEUTROPHILS - described as granulated leucocyte due to granules visible in the cytoplasm. - lobulated nucleus - most abundant (55-70%) of all leucocytes - short life span and dies after a few days - dead cells make a large portion of PUS that form after INFECTION - during cell infection, the neutrophils are the FIRST CELL to move into the tissue to destroy the pathogen - PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT IN KILLING PATHOGENS INSIDE CELLS 3. DENDRITE CELLS - CHARACTERISED BY PROJECTIONS FROM THE CYTOPLASMAM - slightly different from macrophages and neutrophils as their FUNCTION GOES BEYOND PHAGOCYTOSIS - then use INFORMATION ABOUT INGESTED PARTICLE TO ASSISTS IN SPECIFIC IMMUNITY

Answer 22

1. Phagocye captures invading pathogen by moving to it 2. It changes shape so it completely encloses bacterium 3. LYSOSOMES contain destructive enzymes 4. enzymes released and destroy the pathogen 5. Harmless particles are released from phagocyte

Answer 23

is a response to any damage to the tissues Damage to tissues stimulates a series of steps in the inflammatory response - some of these steps are assisted by proteins in the Complement system that are produced by liver cells and macrophages

Answer 24

1. Reduce the spread of any pathogens 2. Destroy pathogens and prevent the entry of additional pathogens 3. Begin repair of damaged cells and tissue

Answer 25

words ending with 'itis' indicate INFLAMMATION of specific organs/tissue - Tonsilitis - inflammation of the tonsils - Meningitis - is inflammation of the meninges, the membranes around the brain - Laryngitis - is inflammation of the larynx

Answer 26

eg. when there is a mozzie bite or cut, able to identify every 4 signs of the inflammation 1. REDNESS 2. SWELLING 3. PAIN 4. HEAT

Answer 27

Step 1. - mechanical damage or local chemical damage - causes specialized leukocytes called MAST CELLS to be ACTIVATED BY COMPLEMENT PROTEINS - Results in the RELEASE OF HISTAMINE, HEPARIN and other CHEMICALS INTO THE TISSUE Step 2. - HISTAMINE (vasodilator) increases blood flow through the area due to VASODILATION - making BLOOD CAPILLARY WALLS MORE PERMEABLE - more FLUID MOVES THROUGH CAPILLARY WALLS INTO THE TISSUE - The increased blood flow causes REDNESS AND HEAT - ESCAPE of the fluid from the blood CAUSES SWELLING; more fluid/liquid in an area Step 3. - HEPARIN RELEASED FROM MAST CELLS prevents clotting, IN IMMEDIATE AREA OF INJURY - A clot of the fluid forms around the damaged area, which slows the spread of the pathogen into healthy tissues Step 4. - Complement system protein and some chemicals released by the MAST CELLS ATTRACT PHAGOCYTES - PARTICULARLY NEUTROPHILS: They actively consume micro-organisms and debris by the phagocytosis STEP 5. - the abnormal conditions in the tissue stimulate pain receptors and so the person feels pain in the inflamed area STEP 6. - the phagocytes, filled with BACTERIA, DEBRIS, AND DEAD CELLS BEGIN TO DIE. - the dead phagocyted and tissue fluid from a yellow liquid called PUS. STEP 7. - NEW cells are PRODUCED BY MITOSIS AND REPAIR OF THE DAMAGED TISSUE TAKES PLACE. - PAIN RECEPTORS - PAIN WHEN STRETCHED

Answer 28

A system of proteins that are produced by liver cells and macrophages - enhances the activity of antibodies and phagocytes 1. series of more than 20 proteins, many of which are normally active 2. when initiated, one protein activates the next activating the next, and so on...

Answer 29

An elevation of body temperature (heat) - accompanying an infection (common cold, influenza) - change in body temperature is due to a RESETTING of the BODY'S THERMOSTAT controlled by the HYPOTHALAMUS to a HIGHER LEVEL THAN NORMAL

Answer 30

- Presence of an infection 1. CHEMICALS CALLED PYROGENS are RELEASED FROM THE WBCs during INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE 2. Acts on the HYPOTHALAMUS - change in body temperature is due to a RESETTING of the BODY'S THERMOSTAT controlled by the HYPOTHALAMUS to a HIGHER LEVEL THAN NORMAL 3. When a person has a fever the TEMPERATURE IS STILL REGULATED IN RESPONSE TO HEAT/COLD 4. ***SET POINT IS TO A HIGHER VALUE 5. Person's thermoreceptors detect the body temperature and the hypothalamus recognizes that it is lower than the new, higher set point. 6. Consequence is VASOCONSTRICTION AND SHIVERING - CONSERVE HEAT AND INCREASE HEAT PRODUCTION TO DRIVE THE BODY TEMPERATURE UP RAPIDLY. 7. When fever BREAKS, THE POINT CALLED 'CRISIS': reset the body thermostat to normal 8. In this situation, the PERSON WILL FEEL HOT and appear FLUSHED, as SWEATING AND VASODILATION takes place.

Answer 31

INTERLEUKIN -1 - predominantly produced by macrophages - also produced by other cells such as dendrite and epithelial

Answer 32

FEVER IS BENEFICIAL UP TO A POINT 1. inhibits the growth of some bacteria/virus 2. speeds up chemical reactions which may in turn help body cells to REPAIR THEMSELVES QUICKLY DURING DISEASE 3. Inhibit VIRAL REPLICATION by ALLOWING CHEMICALS CALLED INTERFERONS TO OPERATE MORE QUICKLY. BAD - TEMP over 40 degrees - CONVULSIONS, DEATH OF CELLS, BRAIN DAMAGE, DENATURE ENZYMES - DEATH WILL OCCUR IF REACHES 44.4-45.5 DEGREES

Answer 33

- RELEASED BY DYING CELLS | - CHEMICAL SIGNALS ARE SENT BY THEM TO NOTIFY OTHER CELLS ABOUT THE INFECTION

Answer 34

CONSISTS OF : 1. NETWORK OF LYMPH CAPILLARIES JOINED TO LARGER LYMPH VESSELS 2. LYMPH NODES WHICH ARE LOCATED IN THE LENGTH OF SOME LYMPH VESSELS FUNCTION: 1. collect some of the fluid that escapes from the blood capillaries and return it to the circulatory system 2. Body's internal defence against pathogenic organisms

Answer 35

1. Lymph nodes occur at intervals along lymphatic vessels 2. each node contains masses of lymphoid tissue - cells of which are CRISS-CROSSED by a NETWORK OF FIBRES 3. LYMPH entering the lymph nodes contain CELL DEBRIS, FOREIGN PARTICLES and MICRO-ORGANISMS that have PENETRATED THE BODY'S EXTERNAL DEFENCES - some pathogenic, if not destroyed, can cause disease - larger particles eg. BACTERIA ARE TRAPPED in the MNESHWORK OF FIBRES as the LYMPH FLOWS THROUGH the spaces in the NODES 4. MACROPHAGES INGEST/DESTROY THESE PARTICLES BY PHAGOCYTOCIS 5. WHEN INFECTION OCCURS, the formation of LYMPHOCYTES INCREASES AND THE LYMPH NODES BECOME SWOLLEN AND SORE eg. infected finger = swelling and tenderness in the armpit, where there are large numbers of lymph nodes 6. MOST LYMPHOCYTES ARE IMPORTANT IN SPECIFIC RESPONSE TO A PATHOGEN.

Answer 36

Defences of the body directed towards a particular pathogen | - PART OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Answer 37

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CELLS THAT OCCUR IN MOST ORGANS OF THE BODY AND PROTECTS AGAINST - FOREIGN ORGANISM, - ALIEN CHEMICALS, - ABNORMAL CELLS/CANCEROUS, COMPOSED OF - CELLS * non-specific (phagocytes) * specific (T AND B CELLS) - PROTEINS

Answer 38

A response triggered by foreign particles, substances or micro-organisms entering the body It involves - - B CELLS and the PRODUCTION OF ANTIBODIES - -T CELLS AND THE DESTRUCTION OF A CELL It is a HOMEOSTATIC MECHANISM - DEALS with INVASION and RESTORES the INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT to its NORMAL CONDITION

Answer 39

A WBC that is responsible for the IMMUNE RESPONSE - TWO TYPES = T&B CELLS (via maturation) - PRODUCED IN BONE MARROW and END UP IN LYMPHOID TISSUE

Answer 40

Tissue containing many lymphocytes and macrophages - MOSTLY found in the LYMPH NODES, but also found in the BONE MARROW, TONSILS, SPLEEN, AND THYMUS

Answer 41

1. HUMORAL RESPONSE/ antibody-mediated response - involves B-cells (B-LYMPHOCYTES) - PRODUCTION OF ANTIBODIES - CIRCULATE AROUND THE BODY - ATTACK INVADING AGENTS IN THE BLOOD/FLUID PARTS OF THE BODY (HUMORAL PARTS) - TRIGGERED BY ANTIGENS 2. CELL MEDIATED RESPONSE/cellular immunity - involves T-cells - ATTACH TO ANTIGENS TO DESTROY THEM - IN CELLS

Answer 42

1. responsible for cellular immunity 2. OCCURS in the same LYMPHOID TISSUE AS B-CELLS, BUT OCCUPY DIFFERENT AREAS OF THE TISSUE 3. 1000S TYPES - SPECIFIC TO ANTIGEN 4. ACTIVATED/SENSITISED when foreign particles enters the body 5. PRODUCED IN BONE MARROW AND Matures in the THYMUS 6. WBC

Answer 43

1. WBC 2. PRODUCED IN BONE MARROW, MATURES IN BONE MARROW, END UP IN LYMPHOID TISSUE - BECOME PARTS OF LYMPHOID TISSUE 3. ACTIVATED/SENSITISED WHEN ANTIGEN ENTERS

Answer 44

ANY SUBSTANCE CAPABLE OF CAUSING A SPECIFIC IMMUNE RESPONSE - large molecules ANTIGENS ACTIVATE B-CELLS BEFORE IT GETS TO THE CELL (INSIDE OF IT)

Answer 45

PROTEINS, CARBOHYDRATES, LIPIDS, AND NUCLEIC ACID - VIRUS PARTICLES - WHOLE MICRO-ORGANISMS (bacteria cell) - PART OF BACTERIUM (flagella, cell wall, capsule) - MOLECULES ON CELLS (blood cells) - EGG WHITES - POLLEN GRAINS

Answer 46

SELF ANTIGENS - large molecules produced in a person's own body - does not cause an immune response NON-SELF ANTIGENS - anti-self antigens - foreign compounds that trigger a immune response THE IMMUNE SYSTEM BEFORE BIRTH BECOMES PROGRAMMED TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN SELF-ANTIGENS AND NON-SELF ANTIGENS. - from then on it will only attack non-self antigens

Answer 47

A 'Y' SHAPED specialized protein that is produced by plasma cells in response to a non-specific antigen. - GROUP OF PROTEINS KNOWN AS IMMUNOGLOBINS - represented as 'Ig' - there are 5 classes of antibodies that vary in their structure and are designated IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM - ANTIGEN PRODUCED IN RESPONSE TO AN ANTIGEN CAN COMBINE WITH THAT ANTIGEN TO FORM AN ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY COMPLEX

Answer 48

Antigen molecules have specific active sites with a particular shape - has a complementary shape, allowing 2 molecules to fit together like a key in a lock. - each particular antibody can combine with only one particular antigen has - antigen - antigen - binding - site fragment - antibody y

Answer 49

A cell that develops from a B-cell and produces antibodies

Answer 50

When a non-self antigen enters the body, specific cells recognize this and respond appropriately. INCLUDES - DENDRITE CELLS - MACROPHAGES - UNDIFFERENTATED B-CELLS

Answer 51

1. detect the presence of a non-self antigen 2. engulf the pathogen 3. digest the pathogen, producing small fragments that move to the surface of the cell 4. present the antigen to lymphocytes

Answer 52

1. Antigen-presenting cells present the antigen to the SPECIFIC B -CELLS 2. B-CELLS BECOME ACTIVATED (via detection of stimuli from their receptors) - SENSITISED, ENLARGE AND DIVIDE 3. DIVIDE TO A GROUP CELLS = CLONE 4. most clones become PLASMA CELLS: which secrete a specific antibody capable of attaching to the active site of the antigen 5. THESE ANTIBODIES CIRCULATE THE BLOOD, LYMPH, AND EXTRACELLULAR FLUID TO REACH THE SITE OF INVASION 6. REMAINING B-CELL CONES BECOME MEMORY CELLS - SPREAD TO ALL OF THE BODY TO ALLOW THE RESPONSE TO OCCUR MORE RAPIDLY SHOULD ANTIGEN ENTER THE BODY AGAIN 7. ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY COMPLEX 8. ONCE THE LEVEL OF ANTIBODIES REACHES A PEAK, IT BEGINS TO DECLINE

Answer 53

primary - first exposure - usually responds very slowly - often taking several days to build up a large number of antibodies - need time for b-cells to multiply and differentiate into plasma cells and secrete antibodies - once the level of antibodies reaches a peak, it declines - HOWEVER, THE PRIMARY RESPONSE LEAVES THE IMMUNE SYSTEM WITH A MEMORY OF THAT PARTICULAR ANTIGEN secondary - subsequent exposure of the same antigen - MUCH FASTER due to MEMORY CELLS RECOGNSINSNG THE ANTIGEN MORE QUICKLY - PLASMA CELLS ARE ABLE TO FORM QUICKLY, RESPONSE IS MUCH MORE INTENSE MAKING IT OCCUR FASTER - HIGHER LEVEL OF ANTIBODIES AND LAST LONGER - RESPONSE IS SO QUICK THAT THE ANTIGEN HAS LITTLE OPPORTUNITY TO EXERT ANY NOTICEABLE EFFECT ON THE BODY AND NO ILLNESS RESULTS

Answer 54

- INACTIVATE foreign enzymes or toxins by combining with them or inhibiting their reaction with other cells - BIND to the SURFACES of the VIRUSES AND PREVENT THEM ENTERING CELLS - COAT BACTERIA SO THAT THEY ARE MORE EASILY CONSUMED BY PHAGOCYTES - cause particles such as bacteria/virus/foreign BLOOD CELLS TO CLUMP TOGETHER, A PROCESS CALLED AGGULATION - DISSOLVE ORGANISMS - REACT WITH SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES TO MAKE THEM INSOLUBLE AND THUS MORE EASILY CONSUMED BY PHAGOCTYES

Answer 55

1. ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELL present the antigen to a particular type of T-CELL 2. Specific T-lymphocyte is stimulated - SENSITIVE, ENLARGE SWELL to undergo rapid cell division 3. EITHER WILL DEVELOP INTO MEMORY CELLS AND CLONE 4. REMAINING WILL DEVELOP FURTHER, PRODUCING 3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF T-CELLS 1*** KILLER T-CELLS (cytotoxic cells) - migrate to the site of infection and deal with the invading antigen - attaches to invading cells and secrete a chemical that will destroy the antigen and then. in search of more 2*** HELPER T-CELLS - in humoral and cellular immunity - BIND TO THE ANTIGEN ON ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS STIMULATING THE SECRETION OF CYTOKINES THAT: - ATTRACT LYMPHOCYTES TO THE INFECTION SITE, WHICH BECOME SENITISED AND ACTIVATES AND THUS INTENSIFYING THE RESPONSE - attract MACROPHAGES to the place of infection so that the macrophages can destroy the antigens by phagocytosis - intensify the phagocytic activity of macrophages - promotes the action of killer T-cells 3. SUPPRESSOR T CELLS - act when the immunity activity becomes excessive or the infection has been eliminated. they RELEASE SUBSTANCES THAT INHIBIT T AND B CELL ACTIVITY, SLOWING DOWN THE IMMUNE RESPONSE

Answer 56

HELPER T-CELLS ARE STIMULATED BY ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS WHICH RELEASE CYTOKINES - ATTRACT LYMPHOCYTES TO THE INFECTION SITE, WHICH BECOME SENSITISED AND ACTIVATES AND THUS INTENSIFYING THE RESPONSE - attract MACROPHAGES to the place of infection so that the macrophages can destroy the antigens by phagocytosis - intensify the phagocytic activity of macrophages - promotes the action of killer T-cells IN HUMORAL AND CELL MEDIATED

Answer 57

resistance to infection by invading-microorganisms - presence of memory cells allows the body to respond quickly enough to deal with any pathogenic invasion, before symptoms of the disease occur

Answer 58

NATURAL - occurs without any human intervention artificial - results from giving people antibody or antigen BOTH CAN BE PASSIVE OR ACTIVE

Answer 59

when a person receives antibodies produced by someone else - meaning the individuals body plays no part in the production of the antibodies eg. placenta, breast milk, injected with antibodies IMMUNITY IS ESTABLISHED IMMEDIALETY IS SHORT-LIVED - LASTS ONLY UNTIL THE ANTIBODIES ARE BROKEN DOWN AND EXCRETED

Answer 60

THE BODY IS EXPOSED TO A FOREIGN ANTIGEN AND MANUFACTURES ANTIBODIES IN RESPONSE TO THAT ANTIGEN - AMOUNT OF ANTIBODIES DECREASES, THIS TYPE OF IMMUNITY LASTS LONGER DUE TO THE PRESENCE OF MEMORY CELLS - CAN develop from experiencing and recovering from injection with antigens or naturally transmitted infection

Answer 61

programming the immune system so that the body can respond rapidly to infecting micro-organisms DEVELOPING IMMUNITY

Answer 62

ARTIFICIAL INTRODUCTION OF ANTIGENS OF PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS SO THAT THE ABILITY TO PRODUCE THE APPROPRIATE ANTIBODIES IS ACQUIRED W/O THE PERSON HAVING TO SUFFER DISEASE VACCINE = the antigen preparation used in artificial immunization

Answer 63

1. LIVE ATTENUATED VACCINES - living attenuated micro-organisms are pathogens of REDUCED VIRUELNCE: reduced ability to produce disease symptoms - person cannot contract the disease but MANUFACTURES THE ANTIBODIES AGAINST ANTIGEN - EXAMPLES - RUBELLA, TUBERCULOSIS, POLIO, MEASLES, MUMPS AND YELLOW FEVER 2. INACTIVATED VACCINES - DEAD MICRO-ORGANISMS - PRODUCE IMMUNITY THAT IS SHORTER LASTING THAN LAV - CHOLERA, TYPHOID, WHOOPING COUGH 3. TOXOID VACCINES -used when immunizing for liberating effects of toxins produced by bacteria - INACTIVATED TOXINS = TOXOIDS are injected to a person so that they are not made ill AND YET DEVELOP IMMUNITY EXAMPLES - DIPHTHERIA, TETANUS 4. SUB-UNIT VACCINE - fragment of an organism can be used to provoke the immune response e - examples GARDASIL = HPV, AND HEPATITIS B

Answer 64

insert DNA sequences from the pathogen into harmless bacterial cells - chosen DNA sequence can cause the production of antigens that are characteristic of the pathogen

Answer 65

VIA NEEDLE IT IS INJECTED USUALLY - HPV, CHICKENPOX, MEASLES, MUMPS ORAL VACCINES - IN SEET SUGAR SYRUP OR LUMPS OF SUGAR - POLIO OTHER FORMS IN RESEARCH = FINE SPRAY, PATCHES, INGESTION

Answer 66

SMALLPOX IS ELIMINATED NEXT FOR WHO IS POLIO

Answer 67

BIRTH - HEPATITIS B - due to risk of infection during birth then later for the immune system to be activated because the placenta and breast milk provide antibodies to overcome disease 2-4 MONTHS POLIO, WHOOPING COUGH, DIPHTHERIA, TETANUS, HEPATITIS B, HiB, pneumococcal 6MONTHS - SAME 12 MONTHS - MEASLES, MUMPS, RUBELLA, HiB, MENINGOCOCAAL 18 MONTHS - MEASLES, MUMPS, RUBELLA, CHICKENPOX 4 YEARS - DIPHTHERIA, TETANUS, WHOOPING COUGH, POLIO, MEASELS, MUMPS, RUBELLA 10-15 YEARS - HEPATITIS B, CHICKENPOX, DIPHTHEERIA, TETANUS, WHOOPING COUGH, HPV 15 YEARS AND OVER - INFLUENZA, (ABOS), PNEUMOCOCCAL 50 YEARS AND OVER -N INFLUENZA, PNEUMOCOCCAL, PREGNANT WOMEN - INFLUENZA 65 AND OVER - INFLUENZA ANNUALLY, PNEUMOCOCCAL

Answer 68

aprox 70% (differsv to country pop and prox) A proportion of individuals are immunized when a large number of immune individuals in a population there is less chance the disease being transmitted between them

Answer 69

1. ALLERGIC REACTIONS - not from the vaccine itself from the medium the vaccine is produced in eg. INfluenza is cultured in the fertilized egg, egg protein allergic reaction Hepatitis B = yeast component 2. PRESERVATIVES - certain chemicals are used as preservatives - thiomersal, phenol (carbolic acid), aluminum phosphate, formaldehyde 3. IMMUNOSUPPRESSED PEOPLE

Answer 70

1. INABILITY TO BE VACCINATED DUE TO HEALTH ISSUE 2. SOCIAL FACTORS 3. CULTURAL FACTORS 4. ECONOMIC FACTORS

Answer 71

1. ETHICAL CONCERNS WITH THE USE OF ANIMALS TO PRODUCE VACCINES - virus needs to be cultured in living cells to be reproduced, hence animal cells are used - worried about the treatment of animals EG INFLUENZA IN CHICKEN EMBRYO 2. ETHICAL CONCERNS WITH THE USE OF HUMAN TISSUE TO PRODUCE VACCINES - EG RUBELLA - some virus does not grow well in other species tissue and this avoids cross-species - people would want to harvest human embryos, tissue - moral question on how the cells were obtained 3. Ethical concerns with testing on animals - any problems with the treatment of animals and the harm they obtain from the problems of the virus - animals should not be used at all 4. ethical concerns with informed consent - trial in countries with low standards of education and will perform in an experiment without knowing risks and become exploited 5. concerns about promoting sexual activity between teenagers - against HPV likely encourage teenagers to be sexually active 7. availability: may not available in all areas

Answer 72

1. religious beliefs eg church of the firstborns, and the, first church of christ are against because they contradict their beliefs believe in recovery through prayer, faith the way obtained may also be against the religion

Answer 73

1. Cost of vaccine - too expensive for people to buy | 2. commercialization - interests in commercial vaccines may affect their use

Answer 74

drugs that are used to fight infections of bacteria

Answer 75

penicillin notaum - to stop the growth of the staphylococcus bacteria streptomycin, erythromycin, neomycin, tetracycline, vancomycin - interferes with protein synthesis in the cell of target bacteria cephalosporin - interferes with the synthesis of the cell wall - less likely to produce allergic reactions

Answer 76

BACTERIOSTATIC - prevents reproduction, usually disrupting protein synthesis BACTERICIDAL - KILLS BACTERIA BY CHANGING STRUCTURE OF CELL WALL OR MEMBRANE, DISRUPTING ACTION OF PARTICULAR ENZYMES

Answer 77

BROAD - Affect a wide range of bacteria Narrow - specific to bacteria

Answer 78

Multiple - 'super bugs' - resistant to most antibiotics Total - cannot be treated with current (any) antibiotics

Answer 79

- drugs used for treating viral infections - inhibits the development of the virus, otherwise dangerous for the host as the host cells are used for reproduction of the virus, - hard to produce - virus also leaved the host making hard to develop something for it examples - HIV HERPES, HEPATITIS B AND C, INFLUENZA A AND B TAMIFLU AND RELENZA FOR INFLUENZA HEPATITIS B, C, HERPES USE ZOVIRAX - MARKETING, OR ACYCLOVIR ZIDOVUDINE FOR HIV (AZT)