Chapter 8 + 9 + 10 Flashcards
1
Q
Describe Thinking
A
-Any mental activity or processing of information
-EX: learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing and deciding
2
Q
Cognitive misers refers to the fact that
A
we invests as little metal energy as possible unless its necessary to do more
3
Q
Use of heuristics
A
-Mental shortcut or rules of thumb
-Short cuts and fast judgment our mind makes
-can be wrong
-Mental shortcut
-emotions can impact
-Ex: we don’t ask someone who looks angry if they want to donate
4
Q
Cognitive bias
A
systematic error in thinking
-harder to change the thoughts
-fundamental errors in the way that we process information and how we think
-hindsight bias
-confirmation bias
5
Q
Representativeness Heuristics
A
Judging the probability of an event based on how prevalent that event has been in past experiences
-base on mental models or stereotypes we have in our minds
-We are poor at considering base rate information
-Ex: teacher vs bar owner based off of description
6
Q
Base rate
A
how common a behavior or characteristic is in the real world
7
Q
Availability heuristic
A
An estimate of the likelihood of an occurrence based on how easily it come to our minds (on how “available” it is in our memories
-Ex: crazy deaths are more reported on the news then common disease so we see them as higher rick even thought there are less of a leading cause to most deaths
- coconut vs shark danger
8
Q
Hindsight bias
A
-“I knew it all along effect”
-Tendency to overestimate how accurately we could have predicted something happening once we know the outcome
-Ex: when someone breakups and saying you knew it wouldn’t last
-Just absolute everything seems obvious once we know the outcome
9
Q
Confirmation bias
A
Tendency to seek out evidence that supports out hypothesis or belief and to deny, dismiss, or distort evidence that doesn’t
10
Q
Top-down processing
A
Filling the gaps of missing information using our experience and background knowledge
-Ex; chunking (memories)
-concepts and schemas
11
Q
Bottom up processing
A
brain processes only the information it receives, and constructs meaning from it slowly and surely by building up understanding through experience
12
Q
concepts
A
Knowledge and ideas about objects, actions, and characteristics that share core properties
Ex: apple photos (even thought they show different types and they look different) it is still an apple
13
Q
Schemas
A
-concepts we’ve stored in memory about how certain actions, objects and ideas relate to each other
-Enable us to know roughly what to expect in a given situation and to draw knowledge when we encounter something new
14
Q
Linguistic determinism
A
-A view that we cannot experience thought without language
-Example of Top-down processing
15
Q
Linguistics relativity (sapir-whorf hypothesis)
A
-A view that characteristics of language shape our thought processes
-Ex: remember information more in one language better than the other (French and English speaker)
16
Q
System 1 Thinking
A
Automatic, quick intuitive
Ex: finding the lass easier through the semester
17
Q
System 2 thinking
A
controlled, effortful
-Need to make important decision, and carefully consider all the angels and options
18
Q
Higher - order cognition
A
-Making decisions and solving problems
-most difficult and effortful thinking
-Use of perception, knowledge, memory, language, and reasoning to generate a plan of action
19
Q
Decision making
A
-process of selecting among a set of possible alternatives
-Depends on a variety of factors
20
Q
Paralysis by analysis
A
-Our brain gets easily overwhelmed by excessive information (weighing of pros and cons)
-Over analyzing decisions
Ex: choose a poster study
21
Q
Framing
A
How a question is formulated that can influence the decision people make
22
Q
Problem solving
A
-Generate a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal
-use of breaking problems down
-Reasoning from related examples
23
Q
for problem solving we use
A
heuristic and algorithms
24
Q
Problem solving obstacles
A
-salience of surface similarities
-Mental sets
-Functional fixedness
25
Algorithms
-Step-by-step learned procedures used to solve problem
-used for problems that depend on the same basic steps for arriving at a solution every time it is required
26
Analogies
-Solve problems with similar structures
-recognizing similarities between two unrelated subjects
27
Salience of surface similarities
-How attention grabbing something is
-tend to focus on surface level properties as a problem
28
Mental set
-getting stuck in a solution mode that we found dependable
-trouble thinking outside the bow
29
Functional fixedness
-when we experience difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically is used for one purpose can be used for another
-becoming fixated on conventional use for an object
30
Embodiment models
-Knowledge is organized and accessed in a manner that enables us to stimulate our actual experiences
31
Decision management
-new field that tries to incorporate scientific evidence into the decision making process for businesses
32
stages of problem solving
1.identify the problem
2.define the problem
3.develop a solution
4.Allocate resources
5.Monitor progress
33
Identify the problem
-ill defined
-lacks a goal state
- well defined
- clear end state
34
Define the problem
-how do we get to end states
-functional fixedness
35
Develop a solution
-Trail and error strategies
-algorithms
-Insight
obstacles
-salience
-mental sets
36
Insight
suddenly realizing a solution
37
Allocate resources
problem solving involves:
-attention
-long-term memory
-working memory capacity
38
Define Language
A system of communication that combines symbols, such as words or gestural signs, in rule-based ways to create meaning
39
Arbitrary language
-Its sounds, words and sentences bear no clear relation to their meaning
-Ex: Tarantula is a much longer word then pig but they are smaller
40
Autonomic cognitive process
using and interpreting language usually require little attention
41
The four levels of analysis of language
-phenomes
-Morphemes
-Syntax
-Extralinguistic information
42
Phonemes
The sound of our language
-categories of sounds in a language that combine to produce words
-not the same across languages
Ex: shhhh in shoe
43
Morphemes
The smallest unit of meaningful speech
-Often words but sometimes add-ons to words such as "re-" or "-ing"
-Ex: Overreact there are 3
44
syntax
Grammatical rules that govern hew we compose words into meaningful strings
-word order
-morphological markers
-sentence structure
45
Extralinguistic information
Elements of communication that aren't part of the content of language but are crucial doe interpreting its meaning
-Ex: facial expression, tone of voice, etc
46
Morphological markers
Grammatical elements that modify words by adding sounds to them that change their meaning
-Ex S for plurals, -ed for past tense,
-ing for ongoing action
47
Dialects
Variations of the same language used by groups of people from specific geographical areas, social groups, or ethnic backgrounds
-aren't distinct languages
-2 people with different dialects can for the most part understand each other
-Ex: pop vs soda
48
Babbling
-Intentional vocalization
-Plays important role in language development by enabling babies to figure out how to more their vocal tracts to generate specific sounds
49
What does comprehension precede production in children mean?
children learn to recognize and interpret words well before they can produce them
50
special cases of language learning
-sign language
-Bilingualism
-Homesign
51
Sign language
A type of language developed by members of communities with hearing loss that allows to use visual rather than auditory communication
-Same brain areas are used
-Development stages are unchanged
52
Sign language - myth
-people with hearing loss don't need sign language because they can lip read
-learning to sign slows down the ability if children with hearing loss to learn to speaks
-American sign language is just English translated word for word into signs
53
Bilingualism - pros and cons
-oftener experience a delay in syntax development in each of their languages
-Heightened metalinguistic insight
-Cognitive benefits
-Dominant language
54
Metalinguistic insight
Awareness oh how language is structured and used
55
Homesign
-Children with hearing loss whose parents do not know sign
-Develop their own rudimentary language
-Naturally inclined to want to communicate
-They cant until they are exposed to it
56
Accounts of language acquisition
-The "pure" nature and nurture accounts
-Nativist account
-The social Pragmatics Account
-The general cognitive processing account
57
The "pure" nature and nirture accounts
-Children learn language through imitation
-Not fully true because language is generative
58
Generativity
language is a system that allows us to create an infinite number of sentences, producing new statements, thoughts, and ideas, never previously uttered, it isn't just a set of predefined sentences
59
The nativist Account
-Children come into the world with some basic knowledge of how language works
-they are born with expectations of language, the rules need t be determined by exposure
-Language acquisition device
60
Language acquisition device
Hypothetical construct in the brain in which nativist believe knowledge of syntax reside
61
Social Pragmatic account
-Specific aspects of social environment structure language learning
-Children use the context of the conversation to infer its topic from the actions expressions, gestures, and other behavior of speakers
-problem its Parsimony - its complicated explanation
62
The general cognitive processing accounts
-Children's ability to learn language results from general skills that children apply across variety of activities
-Their ability to perceive, learn, and recognize patterns may be all they need to learn language
-Problem : language is special and children are better at learning it then adults
63
underextended - Learning words
-"flower" refers to only rose
-"ball refers to only their red ball"
64
Overextend - learning words
-"truck" refers to all vehicles
-"apple" refers to all round foods
65
the 2 skills you have to master to learn how to read
1. learning to recognize familiar words when they see them on the page
2. Develop strategies' for reading new words
66
Whole word recognition
Reading strategy that involves identifying common words based in their appearance without having to sound them out
67
Phonetic decomposition
Reading strategy that involves sounding out words by drawing correspondences between printed letters and sounds
68
The Stroop color-naming task
-A test where you have to list the colors name when the words are printed in another color
- Ex: the word red in the color green
69
language deprivation
-Minimal social or language interaction
-Ex: Genie case
70
Critical periods - language development
able to learn a language better with earlier exposure
71
Sensitive period
-"less is more" hypothesis
-With no prior knowledge its a lot to learn
-Children know nothing so they just are constantly learning and there's nothing to interfere with their learning
72
Chimpanzees - communication
-can learn rudimentary language
-cant master syntax
-they cant produce the same sounds as humans
73
Bonobos - Language
most similar to human learning
74
African grey parrot
-good at mimicking sounds
-They may not understand the process of language
75
Sir Francis Galton - Intelligence as a reflection of your senses
-Take in knowledge through your sense
-Stronger sensory abilities = smarter
-Doesn't correlate
-Ex: someone with glasses doesn't mean that they are less intelligent
76
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon - First intelligence test
-Used to differentiate students who were falling behind peers
-Interview style
-Intelligence was measured by being able to reason, show understanding of the world and make good judgement
77
Charles spearman - General vs Specific Abilities
-Items on an intelligence correlated (even when they wer two different topics)
-g and s
78
G - General abilities
-in everyone there is some type of underlying intelligence
-Mental ability
-very controversial
79
S - Specific abilities
-g is made up of s abilities
-Math, verbal, social knowledge etc
-someone who is high g is better at more s
80
what did Raymond Cattel and John Horn discover
fluid and crystallized intelligence
81
what did sir Francis Galton discover?
Intelligence as a reflection of your senses
82
what did Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon do?
first intelligence test
83
Fluid intelligence
-Ability to learn new ways to solve problem
-Used when mastering new task
-Ex: learning how to drive
-people who learn skills faster have more fluid intelligence
-once habituallized moves to crystallized
84
as you age what happens to your fluid and crystallized intelligence
fluid intelligence decreases
crystallized intelligence goes up
85
Crystallized intelligence
-Knowledge of fact you learnt over time
-like long term memory
-knowledge we have acquired over time
86
what did Howard Gardener discover
Frames of mind - multiple intelligence
87
Multiple intelligence - Howard Gardner
-Different frames of mind have different ways of viewing the world
-Each type is relatively independent
-people aren't always intelligent in the same way
-Existential form of intelligence - there are people grasping for higher ideas
88
against multiple intelligence
-at which point is something an ability or an intelligence
-Intelligence is thought of as a natural ability
-When people have brain damage they tend to lose intelligence in multiple types
-There's correlation in intelligence
89
what did Robert Sternberg discover
The Triarchic Model
90
Triarchic Model - Robert Sternberg
-analytical intelligence
-Practical intelligence
-Creative intelligence
91
Analytical intelligence
-Like G
-Ability to reason logically, traditional "books smarts"
92
Practical intelligence
-Ability to solve real world problems (social intelligence)
-On the job success
-"street smarts"
93
Creative intelligence
-Ability to create novel and effective answers
94
Weakness of the Triarchic model
-Still an aspect of G
-The measure of practical intelligence may be considered measures of job knowledge (are you just good at your job or are you intelligent)
-Casual relationships not clear
-taught to be good isn't intelligence its a skill
95
Double curse of incompetence
If you have poor cognitive skills then you have poor metacognition (the ability to think how you think) there fore, poor estimation of ones intelligence
Ex: people who think that they are a good employee but aren't
96
Lewis Terman - Stanford-Binet Intelligence test
-Established norms
-compare person X to peers
compared to similar age peers
97
IQ - Willhelm stern
Take a person's mental age (age corresponding to their performance)
-Mental age/Chronological age x 100 = IQ
98
Willhelm stern did what?
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
99
Deviation IQ
Compares each person to what is normal for their age group
100
Wechsler Adult intelligence scale (WAIS-IV)
- 16 and up
-genrate 5 main scores
-full scale IQ (use the 4 others to make this up =) (overal intelligence)
-Verbal comprehension (ability to use and understand language)
-Perceptual reasoning (spatial axarness) (mentally roate and image)
-Processing speed (how fast can you think)
-Working memory ( how much info you can hold in you mind at that moment
101
WISC
Wechsler test for 6-16
102
WPPSI
Wechsler test for 2.5-7
103
Environmental influences
-If you're from a family with more kids
-If you believe intelligence is fixed
-doesn't matter how hard ill try ill never be good
-More education
-If a teacher expects you to be smart
-breastfeeding
-poverty
104
Eugenics
-The effort to improve a populations "genetic stock" by encouraging people with "good genes" to reproduve, discouraging people with "bad genes" from reproducing
105
Ravens progressive matrices
Requires examinees to pick out final geometrical pattern in a sequence
-Culture-fair IQ test
106
Head start program
gave disadvantages preschool children access to enriched educational environments
-Provided a short-term boost in IQ scores
107
working memory
whatever your thinking about right now
-moderately to strongly correlated with intelligence test
108
Flynn effect - James Flynn
New Iq test were created harder and harder each time because the average is always expected to be at 100
raises approximately 3 points every decade
109
Termans termites
-1500 junior-high student who were mentally gifted
-followed them through their lives
-many earned prestigious degrees
-Lower rates of mental illness and suicide
110
the three general criteria's for intellectual disability
-childhood onset (shown at a young age)
-Deficits in intellectual functioning (IQ below 70) (trouble with reasoning, judgement, problem solving, academic learning)
-Deficits in adaptive functioning (person isn't able to live independently, difficulties dressing themselves etc)
111
Mild intellectual disability
-55 to 70 ID
-have concrete language
-Abstract ideas are difficult
-Can be somewhat independent
-can form relationships but cant fully understand people like how they can lie to them
112
Moderate - intellectual disability
-40-55 IQ
-they can engage in self care
-elementary level of understanding
-difficulty with maintaining relationships with other people and understanding them
113
Severe - intellectual disability
-IQ between 20 and 40
-simplistic speed
-Ongoing supervision
114
Profound - Intellectual disability
totally independent for someone to keep them alive
non verbal
115
Woman tend to do better in what abilities
verbal tasks
arithmetic
recognizing emotions
116
men tend to do better in what abilities
spatial awareness
mathematical reasoning
117
Within-group heritability
how much the variability of a trait in a group is due to genes
118
Between group heritability
how much the different in a trait between groups is due to genes
119
What does creativity require
divergent and convergent thinking
120
Divergent thinking
-Ability to generate many alternative solutions
-"use of an object test"
121
Convergent thinking
-The ability to choose he best solution out of all the possibilities
122
Emotional intelligence
-The ability to recognize and regulate emotions within yourself and with other people
-Could be used negatively
-Weak predictor of overall intelligence
123
Emotional reasoning
tendency to judge the validity of an idea by our emotional reaction to it
124
Test-bias
Tendency of a test to predict outcomes better in one group than another
125
Stereotype threat
Refers to a fear that we may confirm a negative stereotype
126
Developmental psychology
study of how behavior and mental processes change over the lifespan
127
Post hoc fallacy
-Logical error when you assume A caused B, only because A came before B
-Just because two effects come in a certain order doesn't mean that they are causing something (correlation is not causation)
-EX: 100% of serial killers drank milk when they were young
128
Cross-sectional desing
a design in which researchers examine people of different ages at a single point in time
-Doesn't control the cohort effect
-cost and time effective
129
Cohort effect
-A group born around the same time, who would have similar cultural experiences
-When did social media come into effect in their life? (are older adults worse with technology or did they not grow up with it)
130
longitudinal design
Tracks the development of the same group of subjects over time
-takes a long time
-participants may drop out
131
Infant determinism
-myth
-Assumption that extremely early experiences -especially in the first three years of life - are almost always more influential than later experiences in shaping adults
132
Childhood fragility
-myth
-Children are delicate little creatures who are easily damaged
133
Gene-Environment interactions
the impact of genes on behavior depends on the environment in which the behavior develops
134
Nature via nurture
Genetic predisposition can drive us to select and create particular environment. leading to the mistaken appearance of a pure effect of nature
135
Gene Expression
some genes "turn-on" only in response to specific environmental events
136
what does Bidirectional influences mean
Humans development isn't linear
-Your development is going to impact you experience and then your experiences with affect your development
137
Biological age
estimate of a person age in terms of their biological functioning
138
Psychological age
a persons mental attitude, agility, or a ability to deal with stresses in their environment (someone mental attitude)
139
Function age
-A person ability to function in a given role in society
-How well you can perform the role you need to
140
Social age
whether people behave in accordance in the social behavior appropriate for that age
141
Cognitive development
-How we acquire the ability to learn, think, communicate, and remeber over time
142
Theoretical perspectives (how our thinking develops) 3
1. stage like
2.domain general vs specific
3.cognitive developmental models differ in their of the principle source of learning (emphasis on the physical experiences, social interactions, etc)
143
Stage like changes in understanding
spurts of knowledge follow by period of stability
144
domain general - thinking developing
crosscutting changes in children's cognitive skills that affect most r all areas of cognitive function at once
145
Domain specific - thinking development
children cognitive skills develop independently and at different rates across different domains (reasoning, language, and counting, etc)
146
what did Jean Piaget do?
-Attempted to identify the stages that children pass through on their way to adult-like thinking
-children are no miniature aduts (their understanding of the world differs fundamentally)
-Stages are domain general
-proposed that children use assimilation and accommodation
147
Jean Piaget was a stage Theorist what does that mean he believed?
believed that children development is marked by redical reorganizations of thinking at specific transition point/ stages followed by periods furing which their understanding of the world stabilizes
148
Assimilation
-Process of absorbing new experience into current schemas
-Use it to acquire new knowledge within a stage
-they reinterpret new experiences to fit into what they already know
-when they can no longer assimilate it they are forced to engage in accommodation
149
Accommodation
the altering of a schema to make it more compatible with experiences
-creating new schemas as they are exposed to new information
150
Piaget's stages of development (4)
-sensorimotor
-Preoperational
-concrete operations
-Formal operations
151
Sensorimotor stage
-birth to 2 yrs
-no thought beyond immediate physical experiences
-focus on here and now
-mental representation forces them to the next stage
152
Mental representation
the ability to think about things that are absent from immediate surrounding
153
what do children lack in the sensorimotor stage (2)
-object permanence
-Deferred imitation
154
Object permanence
the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view
155
Deferred imitation
The ability to perform an action performed earlier
156
Preoperational stage
-2 to 7 yrs
-ability to think beyond here and now
-they can think of concepts like emotions
-they can use symbols
-Show egocentrism
-Lack conservation
-Ex: when a child hold a banana and pretends its a phone
157
Egocentrism
an inability to see the world from others point of view
-physical and mental
158
Concrete operations
-7-11yrs
-can pas conservation tasks
-Can organize
-Cannot work abstractly (stuck in one way to solve a problem)
-need physical experiences
159
Formal operations
-11 yrs to adulthood
-able to preform hypothetical and abstract reasoning
-beyond here and now
160
what did Lev Vygotsky study?
The social and cultural influences on learning
161
scaffolding - Lev Vygotsky
learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in children learning but gradually remove structure as children become more competent
162
Zone of proximal development - Lev Vygotsky
-The phase when children are receptive to learning a new skill but aren't yet successful at
-When suddenly a child can learn a task
163
conservation - Preoperational stage
Mental operation that we are able to know that an object retains their basic value or amount even if they change their shape or orientation
Ex test: wider(short) vs thinner(taller) cup
164
Cognitive changes - childhood
-self recognition
-theory of mind - understanding what other people think
-counting and math
165
cognitive changes - Adolescence
-Frontal lobe maturing
-Tend to think they are special and unique from people (Personal fable)
-more active limbic system (affects peer pressure)
166
Stranger anxiety
-emerges at 8-9 months and peaks at 12-15 months
-identical across cultures
-children want to be close to their caretakers
-provides adaptive function because they are learning how to really get around at this point
167
Temperament
-Differences between children's personalities
-Based largely on genes
-consistent part of who we are through our lifestyles
-something that's built in not something that you are socialized into
168
the three primary temperaments
-Easy
-Difficult
-Slow to warm up
169
Easy - Temperament
-40%
-adaptable and relaxed
-Easy to sooth
-adapt to new people easily
170
Difficult - temperament
-10%
-Fussy and easily frustrated
-harder to sooth
-could be a more decisive and assertive baby
171
Slow-to-warm-up - temperament
-15%
-shy but slowly adjust
-tend to have lower activity level
172
Behaviorally inhibited - temperament additional fourth
-10%
-anxious
-easily frightened
more likely to be shy adults or develop anxiety
-people with low tend to be more impulsive when they grow up
173
Attachment
-an emotional connection we share with close others (people we feel closest to)
-we imprint
174
Harry Harlow's Rhesus Monkey
-baby monkey were nursed by wire mother but preferred to keep contact with cloth mother (even though they didn't feed the monkey)
-infants are attached to people who comfort them not feed them
175
Attachment styles
-Based on "strange situation"
-secure
insecure-avoidant
-insecure anxious
-disorganized
176
Secure - attachment style
-60%
-sad when mother leaves and happy when they return
become confident, non-reactive, resilient, content, engaged
-When they know their parent is around they are secure
177
Insecure avoidant - attachment style
-indifferent when mother leaves and no reaction when they come back
-might develop because their parent is busy, tired or distracted
-Become emotionally-distant, ambivalent, withdrawn
178
Insecure anxious - attachment style
-start to panic when mother leaves, happy when mother comes back and then pushed the mother away
-develops from parent who overly are attached to their children and then aren't at other times
-Develops emotional insecurities
-they don't know when they are going to be loved or not
179
Disorganized - attachment style
-may be confused when the mother comes back
-comes usually with neglect, emotional abuse, trauma
-Become dramatic, unpredictable and angry
180
Parenting styles (4)
-authoritarian
-authoritative
-uninvolved/neglectful
-permissive
181
Authoritarian
-low responsiveness
-high level of control
-very strict parent
-quick to punish children
-very little affection towards their child
-can be very behaved
-fear of punishment
-lack of being able to make their own decision
182
Authoritative
-high responsiveness
-high level of control
-very supportive of their children but clear no excessive boundaries
-gives sense of control and emotional support
183
uninvolved/neglectful
-low control
-low responsiveness
-might fulfill child basic needs but pay little attention to them
-no positive or negative attention
-could just be single parents not always on purpose
184
Permissive
-low control
-high responsiveness
-a lot of freedom
-rarely any discipline
excessive freedom
-child can be quite impulsive and demanding and can lack self regulation
185
What did Erik Erikson study?
-identity development
-the ways our identity develops over our lifetime
-Figuring out our identity in relation to each other
186
stages of identity development - Erik Erikson (8)
1.Trust vs mistrust (how a child is cared for growing up)
2.Autonomy vs shame (a sense of confidence or independence)
3.Initiative vs guilt (trying to further explore and manipulate their environment
4.industry vs inferiority (joy/mastery of developmental task)
5.identify vs role confusion (a stake and satisfying role a general sense of direction - could has a role confusion if this stage isn't developed properly)
6.Intimacy vs Isolation (can you form deeper more meaningful relationships)
7.Generativity vs stagnation (satisfied familial need; interested in others well beings)
8.Ego integrity vs despair (are you satisfied with your life, do you feel regret)
187
Moral development
-knowing right from wrong
-studied this using moral dilemma
188
Kohlberg's stages of more development
1.Preconventional
2.Conventional
3.postconventional
189
Preconventional -moral development
-focus on punishment and reward
-will the person get away with it or not
-black and white thinking
-3-7 yrs
190
Conventional
-focus is societal values
-what is the las, what does society say
-societal expectation
-8-13 yrs (they want to be viewed as good person)
191
postconventional
-focus on internal moral principles
-what is the higher moral principle that you hold
-what are you values, religion, etc
