chapter 8: imperial and colonial policy Flashcards
How was the Raj administrated?
British officials appointed in London enjoyed unrestrained power – until 1909 when an element of
representative government was introduced at a provincial level through the Indian Councils Act which allowed 27 Indians to be on the provincial council.
* In charge was the Viceroy, It was their job to ensure the regime was secure, the natives were acquiescent and India was profitable. Rule required the collaboration of the native – even more so with the expansion of railways and the
spread of education which had increase English literacy rates
* British intervened in economic and social development both physically as cities grew and in terms of raising
more money through taxation
* The India Civil Service used the policy of ‘divide and rule’ by emphasising the divisions of race, language, religion, caste, occupation, and region and asserted Britain’s moral authority to bring enlightened reform
* They acknowledged some degree of educated Indian representatives of provincial councils in reform in 1892
and 1909 – this further exploited the division between the educated Indian and the illiterate rural masses to
create an ‘Anglo-Indian’ administrative elite. Many educated Indians still saw British rule as the best route to
the future despite some strings of nationalism emerging
How did Viceroy Curzon (1899-1905) introduced reforms to respond to Indian demands?
He was mindful of the growing criticisms of British rule which emanated from professional ‘middle-class’ Indians and their representative body, the Indian National Congress which had been established in 1885 to campaign for home rule. They criticised trading agreements, restraints on Industry and the heavy taxation. Pressure also came from social and humanitarian groups such as ‘The Servants of India’ society which was
active amongst the ‘untouchable’ community at the bottom of the caste system who wanted to see reform of old restrictive laws/practices
* Curzon made reforms to make the administration of India cheaper and more efficient e.g. to the Indian Civil Service
* He founded the Imperial Cadet Corps in 1901, to give native princes and elite figures military training and
‘special’ officer commissions
* He also reformed the universities and the police, lowered taxes and adopted the gold standard to ensure a stable currency
* He set up a Commerce and Industry Department to promote industry and an Agricultural Department to
sponsor research and overseeing the establishment of agricultural banks
what was the North West Frontier 1901?
In 1901, Curzon set up the North-West Frontier Province to protect the border from feared Russian incursions
* This merged the north-westerly areas of the Pashtun lands of the Afghan people with the Punjab and chief
commissioners were put in place there. The policy worked
* Curzon counted a temporary invasion of Tibet (1903-4) to counter the perceived Russian ambition in the area
* Britain and Russia also clashed over Persia
* The disputes were solved after Curzon left office with the Russian ‘entente’ in 1907 which established spheres of influence in Persia and respected the independence of Tibet.
what was the 1905 Partition of Bengal?
In July 1905, Curzon decided that Bengal should be divided into 2 separate provinces: a Muslim majority
province in the east and Assam and Hindu majority province in the west. This was carried out in October and it produced an uproar among the Hindu elite in West Bengal – many of whom owned land in East Bengal that they leased to Muslim peasants .It led to Hindu strikes, protest and boycotts of British made goods
* The campaigns were led by Surendranath Banerjee (twice president of the IYC) and a new stand of nationalist
began to develop
* The event split the congress between the extremist and the moderates
* The Muslim elite supported the partition and formed the All Indian Muslim League in 1906 to safeguard the rights of Indian Muslims
* The Hindu/Muslim division was used to justify British Control as a means to avoid religious conflict
* The two parts of Bengal were reunited in 1911 under Viceroy Hardinge and in 1913 the All Indian Muslim League adopted self-government as its goal
* The event helped bring about Curzon resignation in 1905. He left a legacy of bitter discontent in India
Imperial and Colonial policy under Viceroy Minto (1905-1910)
With the encouragement from the new liberal government and the help of John Morley, the Sectary of State
for India, he introduced a limited program of reforms in 1909 (Morely Minto Reforms) in an attempt to appease the Bengalis. He categorically refused to revoke the partition of Bengal
* The Indian Councils Act of 1909 enabled 27 Indians to be elected from provincial constituencies to the
Viceroy and assisted the making of law
* The elections were held on a very narrow franchise and in some cases, representatives were chosen by the
British but the reforms still provided for greater Indian participation in government
* Further democratic reform in 1910 meant that an election for enlarges provincial councils, 135 Indians were able to secure seats across the subcontinent and this play a greater part in governments at a provincial level
* None of these measures affected the responsibility of government which stayed firmly in British hands, but it
did allow wider opportunities for the Indian opinions to be heard
Imperial and Colonial policy under Viceroy Hardinge (1910-1916)
Appreciating the damage done by Curzon He used the visit of King George V to India in 1911 as an opportunity to reunite Bengal. He moved the Indian capital from Calcutta to Delhi (a Muslim stronghold) as a means of undermining the revolutionary Hindu groups. George V was the first and only British monarch to visit the Raj – he was crowned Emperor of India and a
grand celebratory durbar was held in 1911, in a display of both power and pageants desire to show up the
loyalty of India princely rulers (cost £20 million)
* Hardinge declared war on India’s behalf in 1914 (August) and it was to be a test on India’s commitment to
British Rule, particularly as he did so without consulting India’s population or representatives. India’s service during the war raised hopes of a new deal for India once the war was over
what was the Egyptian administration agreement?
It was not until the onset of the first world war in December 1914 that Britain assured direct rue. Before then it was a ‘veiled protectorate’ with the British running Egyptian affairs and British advisors keeping
watch over every aspect of government. Despite this strong British presence, Egypt was not regarded as a colony – only under military occupation, which had originally been intended as temporary. Egypt still belonged to Turkey, with the Sultan as the Khedive’s overlord
What were the restrictions on Britain’s control of Egypt? Hint: The Capitulations, The Caisse de a Dette and the Mixed Courts
The Capitulations: all foreigners in Egypt came under regulations known as the Capitulations, privileges
granted by the Sultan to protect Europeans from the Muslim laws against Christianity. A foreigner could claim
the right to be tried in his own country’s law courts and any new Egyptians law effecting Europeans had to be
approved by the government of all countries represented in Egypt, which slowed down law-making
* The Caisse de la Dette (which included Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Russia, Italy and Britain): This
controlled Egypt’s finances. About half of the country’s revenue went to paying European bond holders. The
members of the Caisse could prevent the British Consul-General from spending Egypt’s money on matters
they disapproved of (e.g. Cromer’s plan for the re-conquest of the Sudan was thwarted by Russia and France)
* The mixed courts: these had been set up to deal with cases involving both Egyptians and Europeans and were
presided over by European and Egyptian judges who were not always supportive of the British
why did the French become more supportive and cooperative with the British?
After the 1898 Fashoda Incident, Britain and France grew closer together and in 1904 signed an Entente
Cordiale, by which the French agreed to respect Britain’s special rights in Egypt, in return for British recognition of the French takeover of Morocco. With this agreement, the Caisse de la Dette ceased to control Egyptian finances and became only a debt collection agency for foreign bondholders
Administration under Consul General (1883-1907) Baring/ Lord Cromer
Administration: Egypt had a partially elected parliament, consisting of an Advisory Council of Laws and a General Assembly – but all Egyptian government officials had the ‘support’ of a British adviser. If the
resisted British advise or interference they could be dismissed. In 1885, there were about 100 Britons in
government, by 1905, there were over 1000. Baring believed that Egypt should be governed by Egyptians but for the difficulty of discovering who they were. There were also changes to the law-courts and police
Finances under Consul General Baring/ Lord Cromer (1883-1907)
Finances: Khedive Isma’il had accumulated £70 m debt, mostly to European bondholders. Baring made
cutbacks to Egypt’s military and bureaucracy. He also revitalised the economy by improving communications
and investing in irrigation schemes. Within 10 years, exports of cotton and sugar had treble and the population had risen from 7 million to 10 million. There were lower taxation and new-found prosperity
Projects under Consul General Baring/Lord Cromer (1883-1907)
He improved conditions for Egyptian labourers, introduced better sanitation and health services in towns, stopped the use of the kurbash and abolished the corvée. The Aswan Dam was built under the direction of Sir John Aird. It was 18 miles high, a ¼ mile long, it took 6 years to build and cost £2 m. It was
to hold back the waters of the Nile. It opened in 1902 and enabled ½ million acres of former desert to be
irrigated with water from its reservoir, thus enabling year-round circulation. The irrigation works nearly
doubled the crop area but it also added to the workload of the people, saturated and exhausted the soil and
spread waterborne plagues
Military changes under Consul General Baring/ Lord Cromer (1883-1907)
6000 troops were placed under the control of Kitchener. Britain could not risk threat to its Egyptian based investments or to the Suez Canal.
Education under Consul General Baring/ Lord Cromer 1883-1907
He made a show of improving education by he was extremely wary because he had seen the efforts of raised expectations in India – leading to growth in nationalist protest. Therefore, Egyptians were rarely offered more than a few years of elementary schooling. In 1909 a new university was founded (to
supplement the University of Cairo which only offered religious education) to teach modern subjects and train men for the professions
Tourism under Consul General Baring/ Lord Cromer 1883-1907
: Baring oversaw the rapid expansion of modern tourism. Thomas Cook & Son became Egypt’s
largest employer – providing jobs in hotels, houseboats, and excursions. The steamers were extremely luxurious. By 1900 it was very popular for wealthy Britons to ‘winter’ in Egypt
