Chapters 1-3 Flashcards

Question

Role of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation for Body Temperature.

Answer 1

Integumentary System: Heat loss Muscular System: Heat production Cardiovascular System: Heat distribution Nervous System: Coordination of blood flow, heat production and heat loss.

Answer 2

**Positive Feedback:** an initial stimulus produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the original change in conditions. Positive feedback loops are typically found when a potentially dangerous or stressful process must be completed quickly before homeostasis can be restored. Examples: Blood clotting (Hypovolemic shock - failure to clot) and childbirth (oxytocin).

Answer 3

Insulin and glucagon are hormones secreted by islet cells within the pancreas. They are both secreted in response to blood sugar levels, but in opposite fashion! Insulin is normally secreted by the beta cells (a type of islet cell) of the pancreas. The stimulus for insulin secretion is a HIGH blood glucose. The amount secreted into the blood increases as the blood glucose rises. As blood glucose falls, the amount of insulin secreted by the pancreatic islets goes down. In response to insulin, muscle cells, red blood cells and fat cells absorb glucose out of the blood, having the net effect of lowering the high blood glucose levels into the normal range. Glucagon is secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreatic islets in much the same manner as insulin...except in the opposite direction. When blood glucose goes LOW, however, (such as between meals, and during exercise) more and more glucagon is secreted. The effect of glucagon is to make the liver release the glucose it has stored in its cells into the bloodstream, with the net effect of increasing blood glucose. Our bodies desire blood glucose to be maintained between 70 mg/dl and 110 mg/dl (mg/dl means milligrams of glucose in 100 milliliters of blood). Below 70 is termed "hypoglycemia." Above 110 can be normal if you have eaten within 2 to 3 hours. Above 180 is termed "hyperglycemia" (which translates to mean "too much glucose in the blood"). If your 2 two blood sugar measurements above 200 after drinking a sugar-water drink (glucose tolerance test), then you are diagnosed with diabetes.

Answer 4

**Electron Cloud:** The spherical area in which electrons travel **Electron Shell:** a 2-dimensional representation of where the electrons circulate due to the electrical force created by the negative electrons and positive protons. **Valence shell:** the outer energy level of the atom. The number of electrons in the level determines the chemical properties of the element.

Answer 5

**Atoms**: The smallest stable unit of matter 3 subatomic particles: Protons, Neutrons and Electrons **Atomic number:** The amount of protons (and electrons) **Mass number**: the total number of protons and neutrons **Element**: all atoms with the same atomic number **Isotopes**: Atoms of the same element whose nuclei have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.

Answer 6

* *Compound:** a chemical substance made up of atoms of two or more different chemical substances. * *Molecule:** a chemical structure consisting of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.

Answer 7

* *Ions:** Atoms or molecules that carry an electric charge * *Cations:** Ions with a positive charge * *Anions:** Ions with a negative charge

Answer 8

A chemical bond where an atom with an unfilled valence shell donates an electron to another atom so that both become stable ions. The electron donor becomes a cation (+ charge) and the electron acceptor becomes an anion (- charge). The electrical attraction between the newly formed cation and anion draw the two atoms together. Example: Sodium and Chorine attach to form NaCl. Sodium donates an electron to Chlorine so sodium becomes Na+ and chlorine becomes Cl-.

Answer 9

* *Oxygen** – Component of water. Essential for respiration * *Carbon** - Found in all organic molecules * *Hydrogen** – component of water and most other molecules in body * *Nitroge**n – Found in proteins and nucleic acids. Form bases of DNA. * *Calcium** – Found in bones and teeth. Important for membrane function, nerve impulses, muscle contraction and blood clotting. * *Phosphoru**s – Found in bones and teeth, nucleic acids and high- energy compunds. * *Potassium** – Important for membrane function, nerve impulses, and muscle contraction. * *Sodium** – Import for blood volume, membrane function, nerve impulses and muscle contraction.

Answer 10

Chemical bonds where electrons in the incomplete outer level are shared by the atoms. _Single covalent bond_ – one pair is shared. Hydrogen _Double covalent bond_ – two pairs are shared. Oxygen _Triple covalent bond_ – three electron pairs are shared. Nitrogen * *Polar covalent bonds** – electrons are not shared equally. H2O * *Nonpolar covalent bonds** – electrons are shared equally

Answer 11

A weak bond that acts between molecules or between atoms with a molecule. It is the bond between a partial positive charge of a hydrogen atom with a partial negative charge of an oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom of another covalent bond. It can change molecular shapes or pull molecules together. Creates **surface tension** in water. Allows insects to walk on water and small particles of dust from touching the surface of the eye.

Answer 12

New chemical bonds from between atoms or existing chemical bonds are broken. Atoms in the reacting substances, **reactants**, are rearranged to form different substances or **products**.

Answer 13

All chemical reactions occurring in the body at any given moment.

Answer 14

Atoms of low (\<20) atomic number tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell (other than the first shell which only carries 2 electrons.)

Answer 15

**Energy**: The capacity to perform work. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. _Kinetic energy: _ Energy of motion. _Potential Energy_: Stored energy.

Answer 16

The decomposition reactions of complex molecules within the body’s cells and tissues. When a covalent bond (a form of potential energy) is broken, it releases kinetic energy that can perform work. This way, cells perform vital functions such as growth, movement and reproduction.

Answer 17

**Decomposition Reaction**: a decomposition reaction involving water, breaking a molecule into smaller fragments. Occurs outside of cells as well as within them. AB→ A+ B _Hydrolosis_: One of the bonds of the molecule is broke and the components of a water molecule are added to the resulting fragments. (The water loosens the molecule and bonds to the components) A-B+H2O→ A-H+HO-B

Answer 18

**Synthesis Reaction:** assembles smaller molecules into larger molecules and always involves the formation of new chemical bonds. An example is the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen molecules. A+B→AB _Dehydration Synthesis_: Formation of a complex molecule by the removal of a water molecule. A-H+HO-B→A-B+H20

Answer 19

Anabolism: The synthesis of new molecules within the body’s cells and tissues. Since it takes energy to create a chemical bond, anabolism is considered an “uphill” process.

Answer 20

Parts of the reacting molecules are shuffled around to produce new products. Contains decomposition and synthesis. AB+CK→AD+CB

Answer 21

Chemical reactions reversible. Decomposition and Synthesis occur simultaneously. (Jello) A+B← and → AB

Answer 22

A protein catalyst that lowers the activation energy of a reaction. Enzymic reactions are reversible. The enzyme only affects the rate of reaction.

Answer 23

* *Metabolites:** All the molecules (including nutrients) that can be synthesized or broken down by chemical reactions inside our bodies. * *Nutrients:** Essential elements and molecules normally obtained from the diet.

Answer 24

Water Carbon Dioxide Oxygen Inorganic acids, bases and salts

Answer 25

Solubility Reactivity – chemical reactions in our body occur in water and water is a participant in some reactions (hydrolosis and dehydration synthesis) High Heat Capacity Water stays in a liquid state for a long time. Keeps our blood from boiling or freezing. Carries a lot of heat away with it when it changes to a gas. Responsible for cooling effect of perspiration. Thermal inertia: water changes temperature slowly so it helps to stabilize body temp. Lubrication

Answer 26

Ionic bonds are broken as the individual ions interact with the positive or negative ends of polar water molecules. This results in a mixture of cations and anions surrounded by water molecules. The water molecules on each ion form a hydrogen sphere. (Example: NaCl)

Answer 27

Soluble inorganic compounds whose ions will conduct an electrical current in solution. Changes in the concentrations of electrolytes in body fluids disturb almost every vital function. The concentration of ions in body fluids are regulated by the kidneys (ion excretion), digestive tract (ion absorption) and skeletal system (ion storage).

Answer 28

Of, or relating to, a molecule having hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.

Answer 29

Power of hydrogen. The negative logarithm of the hydrogen concentration in moles per liter. PH scale: 01-14. Proper pH of body fluids is necessary for body to maintain homeostasis. Neutral: 7 Acid: \<7 (hydrochloric acid, stomach acid, beer, vinegar, wine, pickles,tomatoes, grapes, saliva, milk). More hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions. Base: \>7 (Sodium hydroxide, Oven cleaner, household ammonia, household bleach, ocean water, eggs, blood) More hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions. pH of blood – 7.35-7.45. Abnormal fluctuations in pH can damage cells and tissues by beaking chemical bonds, changing the shapes of proteins and altering cellular functins. Acidosis: pH\<7.35. pH\<7 can produce a coma. Alkalosis pH\>7.45. pH\>7.8 causes uncontrollable and sustained skeletal muscle contractions.

Answer 30

Any solute that dissociates in solution and releases hydrogen ions, thereby lowering the pH. (proton donor)

Answer 31

A solute that removes hydrogen ions from a solution and thereby raises the pH. (proton acceptor)

Answer 32

An ionic compound containing any cation except a hydrogen ion and any anion except a hydroxide ion. Salts dissociate freely in water, releasing cations and anions.

Answer 33

Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids

Answer 34

**Buffers**: Compounds that stabilize the pH of a solution by removing or replacing hydrogen ions. They usually involve a weak acid and its related salt, which acts like a weak base. • Sodium bicarbonate is very important in the human body. • Baking soda will neutralize an overdose of aspirin. **Antacids:** Basic compounds that neutralize acid and form a salt. Ammonia (NH3) neutralizes HCl in the stomach.

Answer 35

* *Functional Groups**: groups of atoms at occur frequently in organic substances. They greatly influence the properties of the molecule * *Carboxyl group** –COOH. Acts as an acid realizing H+ to become r-COO-. Fatty acids and amino acids. * *Amino group** –NH2. Can accept or release H+ depending on pH. Can form bonds with other molecules. Amino acids * *Hydroxyl group** –OH. May link molecules through dehydration synthesis. Hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl groups and water molecules affect solubility. Carbohydrates, fatty acids, amino acids. * *Phosphate group** –PO4. May link other molecules to form larger structures. May store energy in high-energy compounds. Phospholipids, nucleic acids and high-energy compounds.

Answer 36

An organic compound containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 1:2:1. Includes sugars and starches. Function: Energy sources that are catabolized rather than stored.

Answer 37

**Monosaccharide**: simple sugar. A carbohydrate containing 3-7 carbon atoms. • Glucose (C6H1206), the most important metabolic fuel in the body. • The atoms can form a straight chain or a ring, which is more common in the body. • Dissolve readily in water and are rapidly distributed throughout the body by blood and other bodily fluids. **Disaccharide**: Two monosaccharides joined together. They cannot be absorbed by the body. They need to be disassembled by hydrolosys before they can provide useful energy. **Polysaccharide**: Complex carbohydrates formed by the addition or monosaccharides and disaccharides by dehydration synthesis. _Glycogen_: animal starch; has many side branches consisting of chains of glucose molecules. Does not dissolve in water or other body fluids. Muscle cells make and store glycogen.

Answer 38

The 3-dimensional structure of a molecule is important because it usually determines the molecule’s fate or function. **Isomers**: molecules with the same types and numbers of atoms but a different structure. Glucose, Fructose and Galactose are isomers.

Answer 39

Organic molecules containing Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen with a ration of 1:2 but a much lower proportion of Oxygen. Fats, oils and waxes. • Lipids provide twice as much energy as carbohydrates, gram per gram. • 12-18% of body weight in men and 18-24% in women. • 5 types: Fatty acids, Eicosonoids, Glyderides, Steroids, phospholipids and glycolipids.

Answer 40

Long chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached. One end of the carbon chain is attached to a carboxyl group. Amphipathic – Hydroxyl group is hydrophyllic. Energy source: Lauric acid. Saturated: 4 single covalent bonds. Unsaturated: at least one single covalent bond is replaced by a double covalent bond Monounsaturated: one double covalent bond Polyunsaturated: more than one double covalent bond.

Answer 41

Lipids derived from arachidonic acid, which cannot be synthesized by the body. Leukotrines and Prostoglandins. Chemical messengers coordinating local cell activity

Answer 42

Fatty acids strung together by a simple sugar, glycerol, using dehydration synthesis. Monoglyceride: glycerol and one fatty acid Diglyceride: glycerol and two fatty acids Triglyceride: glycerol and 3 fatty acids Energy source Insulation – fat under skin Protection – cushions organs • Adipose tissue • Absorbs lipid soluble vitamins (A, E, K) • raises ldl of cholesterol. Normal \<150. High \>200

Answer 43

Lipid molecules that share a distinctive carbon framework. Cholesterol. Maintains cell membranes Regulation of sexual function Regulation of tissue metabolism and mineral balance. (calcitriol and corticosteroids) Bile salts required for normal processing of dietary fats.

Answer 44

Amphipathic lipids responsible for membrane function. Called structural lipids. Phospholipids: A phosphate group links a diglyceride to a non lipid group. Glycolipids: A diglyceride is attached to carbohydrate.

Answer 45

Formed from hundreds or thousands of amino acids linked together by peptide bonding. • They are the most abundant organic compound in the body. 20% of body weight. • All proteins contain Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen and Nitrogen. Structure: create 3-dimensional framework for body Movement: Muscular contraction Transport: Transport proteins move various materials from one part of the body to another Metabolism: Enzymes accelerate chemical reactions in cells Buffering: Help prevent dangerous changes to PH Control and coordination: of metabolic activity of cells Defense: antibodies and clotting proteins

Answer 46

Amino acids linked together by a peptide bond _Peptide Bond:_ Dehydration synthesis creates a covalent bond between the carboxyl group of on amino acid and the amino group of another

Answer 47

**Primary Structure**: The structure of amino acids along the length of a single polypeptide. **Secondary Structure**: Results from the bonds between atoms at different parts of the polypeptide chain. Can create an alpha-helix or a pleated sheet. **Tertiary Structure**: Results from the interactions between the polypeptide chain and the surrounding water molecules. •Complex coiling and folding that gives the protein its final 3-dimensional shape. ** Quartenary Structure**: The interaction between individual polypeptide chains to form a protein complex. _Fibrous Proteins:_ Long strands or extended sheets. • They are usually the product of secondary structure or quartenary structure. • Tough, durable and insoluble in water. • Keratin and collagen. _Globular Proteins_: Compact, rounded and generally enter aqueous solutions. • Generally a product of the tertiary structure • Can only function if they remain in solution

Answer 48

The shape of a protein determines its functional properties. The sequence of amino acids is responsible for shape. • Tertiary and quartenary shapes depend not only on amino acids, but also on environmental conditions. Ionic composition, temperatures and pH of surroundings can affect the functioning of a protein.

Answer 49

* *Enzymic Function:** Almost everything that happens in the body does so because a specific enzyme makes it possible. * *Substrates**: Reactants in an enzymatic reaction. * *Active Site**: The place where substrates can adhere to the enzyme * *Cofactor**: An ion or molecule that must bind to the enzyme before substrates can also bind. * *Coenzyme**: Non-protein organic molecules that function as cofactors. Vitamins. * *Isozyme**: 2 enzymes that can catalyzye the same reaction.

Answer 50

Specificity Saturation Limits Regulation (active and inactive under different conditions)

Answer 51

A change in tertiary or quartenary structure of a protein due to temperature and pH that makes it nonfunctional. (Frying an egg)

Answer 52

Individual subunits of nucleic acids. • A pentose (ribose for RNA and deoxyribose for DNA) attached to both: • A phosphate group • A nitrogen base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil) _Purines:_ double ringed bases. Adenine and Guanine _Pyramidines_: single ringed bases. Thymine, Cytosine, Urine.

Answer 53

The primary role of nucleic acids is the storage and transfer of information – specifically, information essential to the synthesis of proteins within our cells. Formed by dehydration synthesis attaching the phosphate group of one nucleotide to the sugar of another.

Answer 54

* *DNA Molecule:** Consists of a pair of nucleotide chains. Hydrogen bonding between opposing nigtrogenous bases holds the two strands together. * *Complementary base pairs:** The combinations of nitrogen bases: AT, CG. * *Complementary Strands:** The two nucleotide strands

Answer 55

A high energy bond connects a phosphate group to an organic molecule. AMP – nucleotide Adenosine monophospate. ADP- Adenosine diphosphate (AMP plus another phosphate group) ATP-Adenosine triphosphate (ADP plus another phosphate group)

Answer 56

The conversions of ADP to ATP is the most important method of energy storage in our cells. The reversion of ATP to ADP is the most important method of energy release. The conversion of ADP to ATP requires the enzyme: **ATPase**

Answer 57

**Nitrogen Bases:** Eventually become our chromosomes. _Purines_: double ringed bases. Adenine and Guanine _Pyramidines:_ single ringed bases. Thymine, Cytosine, Urine.

Answer 58

RNA vs. DNA: _RNA_: Adenine, Uracil, Guanine, Cytosine. _DNA_: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine 100-50,00 nucleotides \>45million nucleotides Shape varies (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA) Paired strands coiled in a double helix Performs protein synthesis as directed by Stores genetic info that controls protein DNA Synthesis

Answer 59

Adding a phosphate group to ADP with a high-energy bond to form the high energy compound ATP.

Answer 60

The anaerobic breakdown of glucose into 2 3-carbon molecules of pyruvate. The molecules are absorbed by the mitochondria with a net gain of 2 ATP molecules.

Answer 61

Cytoplasm contains 2 centrioles at right angles. Each centriole is made of microtubules in a 9+0 arrangement. They are in 9 groups with 3 in each group. Essential for movement of chromosomes during cell division. Centrioles form the spindle apparatus associated with the movement of DNA strands.

Answer 62

Largest part of the cell. Control of metabolism Storage and processing of genetic information. Contains DNA of cells – instructions for protein synthesis

Answer 63

Mitochondria: Has its own DNA Make ATP from 3carbon sugars broken down by glycolosis.in the cytoplasm. citirc acid cycle.

Answer 64

Long extensions containing microtubules in a 9+2 array. Moves material over cell surface Flagella are bigger and longer but do the same for sperm. Problems in respiratory system. Smoking and alcohol affect the length of the Cillia and they can’t move pathogens out of the system.

Answer 65

RNA and proteins. Fixed ribosomes are attached to RER and make proteins for secretion Free ribosomes are in the cytoplasm and make proteins for use by the cell. Both types synthesize protein by using instructions provided by mRNA

Answer 66

Stacks of flattened membranes containing chambers. Modification and packaging of chemical reactions. Storage alteration and packaging of secretory products and lysosomal enzymes. Defective Golgi- Tcell disease.

Answer 67

Vesicles containing digestive enzymes. Intracellular removal of damaged organelles and pathogens Controls cholesterol level LSD- lysosomal storage diseases – lack of specific lysosomal enzymes results in the build up of waste products and debris in the cells. Vital cells can no longer function.

Answer 68

Membrane extensions containing microfilaments. Increases surface area to facilitate absorption of extracellular materials.

Answer 69

– Rough and smooth. _Rough_: Modifies and packages newly synthesized proteins. _Smooth_: Synthesizes lipids and carbohydrates Detoxification – Kidneys and liver Stores calcium

Answer 70

Plasma Membrane Functions: (Cell Membrane): _Barrier_: Physical isolation _Regulation_: what comes in and goes out of cell _Monitors:_ extracellular fluid and chemical signals _Structural support_- anchors the cell

Answer 71

**Lipids**: Phospholipid bylayer. Hydrophillic heads on the outside and hydrophobic tails on the inside. Provides a barrier to ions and water. **Carbohydrates:** Proteoglycans, glycoproteins and glycolipids Extend outside the cell membrane. Form sticky ‘sugar coat’ - _Glycocalix_ Lubrication and protection Anchoring and locomotion Specificity in binding (receptors) Recognition (immune response) **Proteins:** _Integral Proteins_: within the membrane _Peripheral Proteins_: bound to inner or outer surfaces of the membrane. _Anchoring Proteins_: attach to the inside or outside structures _Recognition Proteins_: label cells as normal or abnormal _Enzymes_: catalyze reactions _Receptor Proteins_: Bind and respond to Ligands (ions, hormones) _Carrier Proteins:_ Transport specific solutes through membrane _Channels_: Regulate water flow and solutes through membrane.

Answer 72

_DNA –_ all information to build and run organisms _`Nucleolus_: protein synthesis. Made of RNA, enzymes and histones Synthesize rRNA and ribosomal subunits. _Nuclear pores:_ important during cell division so mRNA can enter nucleolus to retrieve instructions for protein synthesis from DNA. _Nucleosomes_: DNA coiled around histones. _Chromatin_: Loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing) _Chromosomes:_ Tightly coiled DNA (cells dividing) _Chromatid_: Each strand of the double-stranded chromosome

Answer 73

_DNA_: Instructions for every protein in the body _Gene_: DNA instructions for one protein _Genetic code_: The chemical language of DNA instructions Sequence of bases on a strand _Triplet code_: 3 bases=1 amino acid

Answer 74

The nucleus contains chromosomes The chromosomes contain DNA DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins Proteins determine the cell structure and function.

Answer 75

**Transcription: 3 Steps** copies instructions from DNA to mRNA (in nucleus) **Gene activation** Uncoils DNA, removes histones Start and Stop codons (promoters and terminators) locate the gene Coding Strand: code for protein Template Strand: Used by RNA polymerase molecule **DNA to mRNA** Enzyme RNA polymerase transcribes DNA Binds to promoter Reads DNA Code for gene Binds nucleotides to form mRNA mRNA duplicates DNA coding strand – uracil replaces thymine. **RNA processing** At stop signal, mRNA detaches from DNA molecule Code is edited (RNA processing) Unnecessary codes (introns) removed Good codes (exons) spliced together Triplet of three nucleotides (=1 amino acid) **Translation:** mRNA moves from the nucleus through a nuclear pore - to a ribosome in the cytoplasm surrounded by amino acids mRNA binds to ribosomal subunits tRNA delivers amino acids to mRNA tRNA anticodon binds to mRNA codon 1 mRNA codon translates to 1 amino acid Enzymes join amino acids with peptide bonds At stop codon, components separate.

Answer 76

_Direct control through synthesis of_ Structural proteins Secretions _Indirect control over metabolism through enzymes._

Answer 77

no energy expenditures Potential and kinetic energy Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated Diffusion Filtration

Answer 78

Net movement of substances from higher concentration region to lovwer concentration region without energy expenditures. Movement: Brownian Random Motions of movement until equilibrium is reached. _Factors affecting Diffusion:_ Size of particles Concentration- low concentration→low rate /high concentration→high rate Solubility- more lipid, higher solubility – things move faster in lipid environment because lipids are non-polar Molecular weight: lighter molecules→higher rate Diffusion through simple squamous epithelium

Answer 79

Net movement of substances from a higher concentration region to a lower concentration region through a semi-permeable membrane Facilitated by aquaporines. Osmotic pressure stops osmosis – created equilibrium Albumin – the plasma protein responsible for osmotic pressure. (most abundant plasma protein in body) Important for regulating water content.

Answer 80

``` Tonicity: ability to regulate cell volume. Don’t want to saturate the system with too much water → water intoxication Hormone ADH (antidiuretic hormone) regulates water level. ```

Answer 81

**Isotonic fluid**: (saline) physiological solutions) represented by watner content in system Concentration in cytoplasm 0.9% NaCL Net movement in that solution is equal – same amount enters and leaves Preserve things in itsotonic environment. **Hypotonic fluid:** \<.85%NaCl Net movement→ goes in faster than it comes out. Red blood cells in that membrane will break out. Hemolysis→ blood will spill out and cell dies Use for treatment → replacing salts and electrolytes Gatorade **Hypertonic fluid**: \>.9%NaCl Water moves out faster than it moves in. Cell shrinks (crenates) – plasmosis Use for treatment → head injury Take fluid out – release pressure of swelling.

Answer 82

Movement of any substance from a high concentration to a low concentration with a carrier protein.

Answer 83

Movement of substance from high concentration to low concentration with hydrostatic pressure. Kidneys process our waste with filtration

Answer 84

Movement for a low concetration to a high concentration Movement against concentration gradient Requires carrier protein or molecule **Primary Active transport:** Sodium potassium pump 1 molecule ATP to move 3 sodium out and 2 potassium in without sodium the membrane will depolarize Membrane is more permeable to k than to Na

Chapters 1-3 Flashcards

(108 cards)