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PSYC 1200 > chapters 12-14 > Flashcards

chapters 12-14 Flashcards

1
Q

personality

A

A characteristic pattern of thinking, interaction, and reacting that is unique to each individual, and remains relatively consistent over time and situations

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2
Q

What are the two approaches to studying personality?

A
  • idiographic

- nomothetic

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3
Q

idiographic approach

A

Focus on detailed descriptions of individuals and their unique personality characteristics

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4
Q

nomothetic approach

A

Examines personality in large groups, with the aim of making generalizations about personality structure

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5
Q

personality traits

A

Labels applied to specific attributes of personality

-18 000 descriptors tallied by early studies

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6
Q

factor analysis

A

Reveals statistical similarities among a wide variety of items
-18 000 terms, will probably have some redundancy, ex: “I like meeting people” and “I like going to parties” can both go into a category like “I am social”

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7
Q

five factor model

A

A trait-based approach to personality measurement that includes

  • openness
  • conscientiousness
  • extraversion
  • agreeableness
  • neuroticism
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8
Q

what is missing from the five factor model?

A

it does not take into account people that are “evil”

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9
Q

authoritarian personality

A

Tendency to separate social world into ‘us’ and ‘them’

-these people are more likely to engage in prejudice and violence towards members of other groups

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10
Q

what is HEXACO?

A

Added honesty-humility dimension to the big five

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11
Q

the dark triad

A
  • Machiavellianism: playing both sides to use people
  • psychopathy: seeking out conflict to gain stimulation that they were otherwise lacking
  • narcissism: socially destructive people using and manipulating people for their own selfish interest
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12
Q

Right winged authoritarianism (RWA) can be characterized by:

A

Obeying orders; deference to authority

  • supporting aggression against those who dissent and targets identified authorities
  • believe strongly in maintaining the existing social order
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13
Q

what is the global change game?

A
  • each region is given resources and qualities that are equivalent in the real world
  • the game was either run by people who were high right winged or low right winged
  • low right winged people had very little war and military build up, downsizes their armies and diverted the money to humanitarian problems (ex: global warming) this created a peaceful world
  • unlike people who were high right winged, more war, more violence, they wiped out the entire population and the game ended quickly
  • even with a second chance, they played the same way
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14
Q

temperaments

A

Personality-like attributes present at birth

  • innate foundation on which personality is built
  • predicts adult personality (well-adjusted vs. under-controlled and inhibited)
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15
Q

reciprocal determinism

A

The idea that behaviour, internal factors, and external factors interact to determine one another

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16
Q

state

A

A temporary physical or psychological engagement that influences behaviour
-ex: someone that is usually calm and even tempered, if put in the right situation, this person can “snap”

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17
Q

what are the 4 general aspects of situations that would lead to someone “snapping”

A
  • locations
  • associations
  • activities
  • subjective states
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18
Q

do personality structures differ between cultures?

A

Countries do differ in Big Five scores

  • however, Big Five is a construct developed based on Western cultures and language and therefore inherently biased
  • equivalents of Big Five found in most cultures
  • factor analysis of adjective form other languages identify additional, culture specific personality dimensions
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19
Q

Is the Big Five an accurate measure of personality across the world?

A
  • Big Five was developed using the English language so there is bias
  • but, there is reasonable consistency
  • it’s a challenge to assure that these tests are properly translated, but there is a lot of research to say that the Big Five is fairly accurate throughout different societies
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20
Q

individualism

A

Refers to the view that personal identity, goals, and attributes are of greater value than group identity, goals, and attributes

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21
Q

collectivism

A

Is a view that places greater value on defining the self in terms of group membership and goals

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22
Q

There are brain imaging differences between individualistic and collectivistic people

True of False?

A

true, area in the prefrontal cortex had more activation in individualistic people when explaining things that relate to themselves and vice versa for collectivistic cultures when talking about others

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23
Q

______ code for brain chemicals related to personality, not personality itself

A

genes

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24
Q

give an example of how genes can affect personality

A

Genes regulate serotonin transport which is linked with anxiety

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25
Q

what have studies concluded about the similarity of identical twins and their personalities?

A
  • this could be because of genetic makeup
  • but, twins that had been raised in separate households were about as similar to twins that were raised in the same house
  • adoptive parents have quite little impact on their adoptive children
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26
Q

are Big Five traits also found in animals?

A

yes, extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness reliably rated by human caregivers of chimpanzees

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27
Q

novel environment/ novel objects test

A

Measures tendency to explore and shyness-boldness continuum

  • animal enters an unfamiliar room/ is given an unfamiliar object
  • measuring how fearful they are of exploring a new environment, how curious they are
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28
Q

habitat-dependent selection hypothesis

A

Certain personality types have fitness advantages in particular types of environments
-Ex: more bold individuals tend to be better suited for more stable environments, shy individuals are better suited for fluctuating environments

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29
Q

Brain regions responsible for cognitive abilities related to each Big Five factor show ______

A

Size differences between high and low scorers

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30
Q

arousal theory of extraversion

A

Extraversion determined by people’s threshold for arousal

  • ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) regulates arousal response
  • people’s rating on the Big Five corresponded with the size of the brain regions thought to be involved with those certain personality traits
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31
Q

psychodynamic theories

A

Focus on how personality arises through complex interactions involving motivational conscious and unconscious processes that occur from early development through adulthood (Freud)

  • unconscious influences behaviour
  • personality forms in early childhood
  • mental representations shape behaviours
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32
Q

Id

A

Collection of basic biological drives

sexual/aggressive tendencies

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33
Q

super-ego

A

Responsible for moral judgments

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34
Q

ego

A

Mediates between desires of id and super-ego

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35
Q

Though unscientific and discredited, psychodynamic theories had some lasting contributions. What were they?

A
  • appreciation for unconscious processes

- defence mechanisms

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36
Q

defence mechanisms

A

Unconscious strategies to reduce or avoid anxiety, guilt, and other unpleasant feelings

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37
Q

what are 5 defence mechanisms? Explain them

A
  • repression: keeping distressing information out of consciousness
  • denial: refusing to acknowledge unpleasant information
  • rationalization: coming up with alternative explanations to justify one’s unacceptable behaviours
  • projection: remaining ignorant of one’s undesirable qualities by attributing them to others
  • reaction formations: altering an impulse into its opposite
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38
Q

fixation

A

When an individual becomes preoccupied with obtaining the pleasure associate with a particular stage
-proposed some odd psychological tendencies, not supported by any empirical evidence

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39
Q

What are Freud’s psycho-sexual stages of development

A

Oral: Infant achieves gratification through oral activities such as feeding, thumb sucking and babbling
Anal: The child learns to respond to some of the demands of society (such as bowed and bladder control)
Phallic: The child learns to realize the differences between males and females and becomes aware of sexuality
Latency: The child continues his or her development but sexual urges are relatively quiet
Genital: The growing adolescent shakes off old dependencies and learns to deal maturely with the opposite sex

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40
Q

projective tests

A

Personality test which ambiguous images are presented to an individual to elicit responses that reflect unconscious desire or conflicts

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41
Q

What do projective tests tell us about our unconscious desires?

A
  • these methods lack validity and reliability

- perception of others as a measure of projection, but weak correlations

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42
Q

analytical psychology

A
  • Carl Jung

- A branch of psychology that describes personality as the result of unconscious archetypes

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43
Q

collective unconscious

A

A collection of memories that can be traced to our ancestral past

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44
Q

inferiority complex

A
  • Alfred Adler

- an abnormal personality that results from struggling with feelings of inferiority in one’s social environment

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45
Q

humanistic psychology

A

Emphasizes the unique and positive qualities of human experience and potential

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46
Q

Abraham Maslow: self-actualization

A

reaching our fullest potential

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47
Q

Carl Rogers: person-centered perspective

A

People are basically good, and given the right environment their personality will develop fully and normally

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48
Q

positive psychology

A

Uses scientific methods to study human strengths and potential
-well-being and flow

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49
Q

mimicry

A

Taking on for ourselves the behaviours, emotional displays, and facial expressions of others (can be useful when doing something for the first time)

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50
Q

chameleon effect

A

Non-conscious ‘mirroring’ of another person’s behaviour

  • body position, gestures, facial expressions often end up mirroring other person’s expressions when having a conversation
  • ex: sitting in a pub, once one person has a drink it starts a chain reaction
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51
Q

social norms

A

Unwritten guidelines for how to behave in social contexts

  • promotes conformity
  • everything form our manners, and how much to eat at a meal, attitudes and beliefs, etc.
  • these vary by cultures
  • people often don’t realize that their being governed by these social norms
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52
Q

social loafing

A

When individuals put less effort into tasks when working with others

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53
Q

what are some reasons that lead to social loafing?

A
  • person could have low self-efficacy beliefs, they don’t think they have control over the outcome so they put less effort in the group task
  • people don’t care about the group outcome
  • people don’t know how they are helping the group
  • they think others in the groups aren’t putting in their full effort either
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54
Q

social facilitation

-what is the Yerkes-Dodson law?

A

When one’s performance is affected by the presence of others
-Yerkes-Dodson law: idea that for simple tasks, the audience effect tends to benefit performance in that task, for complex tasks, it is the opposite

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55
Q

group think

A

When group members tend towards the same ideas to minimize conflict

  • other perspectives are not considered
  • dissenters pressured
  • overconfidence in decisions
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56
Q

conformity

A

Refers to a change in behaviour to fit in with a group

-conscious decision

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57
Q

what are the 2 different types of influences that lead people to conform to others?

A

Normative influence: conforming to avoid incurring a social cost
Informational influence: concluding that the group must be right

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58
Q

___% of people would at one point conform to the Asch experiments, ___% of people conformed regularly

A

75, 25

59
Q

conformity is affected by what 6 things?

A

1) Size of social group (more than 3 people)
2) Sex of group members (females increased conformity)
3) Familiarity of groups
4) Complexity of the task
5) Presence of nonconformists
6) Anonymity of responses

60
Q

the bystander effect

A

The presence of other people actually reduces the likelihood of helping behaviour

61
Q

diffusion of responsibility

A

When responsibility for taking action is spread across more than one person, making no single individual feel personally responsible

62
Q

pluralistic ignorance

A

Occurs when there is a disconnect between the private beliefs of individuals and the public behaviour they display to others

  • smoke filled room study: people look to others to guide their behaviours
  • this can backfire if it was a real fire and put people in danger
63
Q

social roles

A

Specific sets of expectations for how someone in a specific position should behave

64
Q

deindividuation

A

Psychological state of decreased self-evaluation, often leading to disinhibited and anti-normative behaviour

65
Q

obedience

A

Complying with instructions or orders from an individual who is in a position of authority

66
Q

Milgram’s obedience study

A
  • participants instructed to give ever-increasing electric shocks to another participant, who was actually a confederate
  • more than 75% of people complied
  • 64% of people would go all the way up to 450V
67
Q

what were the variants of Milgrim’s experiment?

A
  • change of clothing
  • different location
  • proximity of experimenter and ‘learner’
  • number of teachers

***but, obedience was disturbingly resistant (around 30% still complied)

68
Q

person perception

A

Refers to the processes by which individuals form judgments about and categorize other people

69
Q

implicit processes

A

Underlie quick, effortless, automatic thinking (not consciously aware)

70
Q

explicit processes

A

Involve more careful and effortful thinking (conscious control)

71
Q

false consensus effect

A

Assuming that our views are representative of society at large
-when people overestimate how much people agree with them

72
Q

naive realism

A

Assuming that our perceptions of reality are accurate, and therefore those who differ must be wrong

73
Q

internal (dispositional) attribution

A

When an observer explains another person’s behaviour as due to some intrinsic quality of the person

74
Q

external (situational) attribution

A

When an observer explains another person’s behaviour as the result of the social context
-“benefit of the doubt”

75
Q

locus of control

A

Degree to which people believe they have control over the events in their life

  • internal vs external
  • internal: thinking that you have a lot of control over the events of their life
  • external: thinking that outside factors are primarily responsible for their behaviours
76
Q

fundamental attribution error

A

A tendency to make internal attributions for other’s behaviours while ignoring external influences

77
Q

ingroups

A

Groups we feel positively towards and identify with

78
Q

outgroups

A

Collection of people who are perceived as different

79
Q

stereotype

A

A set of common beliefs about a group of people

-can be positive or negative, both can have negative effects

80
Q

prejudice

A

Attitudes based on stereotypes that include emotional and value judgments

81
Q

discrimination

A

Behaviours based on prejudice

82
Q

ingroup bias

A

Occurs when we are more likely to attribute positive qualities to the social group to which we belong

  • common during times of economic hardship
  • people tend to over value the contributions of their ingroup and blaming outgroups for taking resources
83
Q

implicit associations tests

A

Measures how fast people respond to stereotype-consistent and stereotype-inconsistent stimuli

  • many prejudice beliefs are not advertised day to day
  • some people aren’t aware that they are following a stereotype
84
Q

how can we reduce implicit bias?

A
  • reprogramming through practice

- social contact between groups

85
Q

the contact hypothesis

A

Predicts that social contact between members of different groups is extremely important to overcoming prejudice
-especially the case if contact occurs when groups have equal power

86
Q

elaboration likelihood model

A

If an audience is motivated to attend to a message and if they have the opportunity for careful processing, they will be persuaded

87
Q

central route to persuasion

A

Makes use of substantive arguments and requires attentiveness of the audience to evaluate the argument’s logic
-longer lasting and more powerful change in attitude

88
Q

peripheral route to persuasion

A

Makes use of style, is easier to process quickly, and activates people’s feelings

  • not as powerful or long lasting, but easier way to persuade people
  • no need for a lot of facts for this method
89
Q

construal level theory

A

Information affects us differently depending on our psychological distance form the information
-“it happened so close to home”

90
Q

attitude inoculation

A

A strategy for strengthening attitudes and making them more resistant to change by first exposing people to a weak counter-argument and then refuting that argument
-used in educational programs (D.A.R.E)

91
Q

the central route to persuasion is hindered by what 2 things?

A
  • negative emotions and processing fluency

- message complexity

92
Q

the identifiable victim effect

A

People are more powerfully moved to action by the story of a single suffering person, than by information about a whole group of people
-gets around the idea of diffusion of responsibility and diverge all the responsibility onto you

93
Q

the analytic system

A

Operates implicitly, acts more slowly and methodically, and uses logical processes
-hearing a story about a mass atrocity, lots of facts and information, we process this in a colder, more calculating way

94
Q

what are 5 things we can do to use the peripheral route efficiently?

A
  • authority: use of experts can increase persuasion
  • liking: more likely to believe people we like
  • social validation: conformity of other group members facilitates persuasion
  • reciprocity: door in the face technique (following up an extravagant request with a reasonable one)
  • consistency: foot in the door technique (following up a smaller request with an even bigger one)
95
Q

cognitive dissonance theory

A

When we hold inconsistent beliefs, this creates aversive inner tension that we are motivated to reduce

  • usually we reduce this by changing one of the beliefs that we previously held
  • ex: fable of the fox and the grapes
  • grapes are too high
  • in order to justify walking away, he changes his initial belief and says that the grapes are probably not that good
96
Q

health psychology

A

The study of both positive and negative impacts that humans’ behaviours and decisions have on their health, survival, and well-being

97
Q

Exposure to ______ of smoking predicts likelihood of smoking in adolescents
-correlation only

A

media depictions

98
Q

name 3 things that are being done in order to try and prevent smoking

A
  • non-smoking laws
  • warnings on packages
  • attitude inoculation
99
Q

body mass index (BMI)

A

A commonly used statistic for estimating a healthy body weight that factors in an individual’s height

100
Q

___% of Canadians classified as obese

A

24

101
Q

set point

A

A hypothesized mechanism that serves to maintain body weight around a physiologically programmed level

  • maintaining over-eating can create a new set point in your weight
  • this effect can also act in the opposite direction
102
Q

social factors influencing obesity

A
  • parental influence
  • media: food commercials increase snacking in children
  • social class
103
Q

3 challenges for maintaining weight loss

A
  • obese individuals find food cues more rewarding
  • dieting reinforces cravings
  • stress eating
104
Q

what is social contagion? How does this relate to obesity?

A

The often subtle, unintentional spreading of a behaviour as a result of social interactions

  • “obesity is contagious”
  • if we see other people over-eating, we tend to over-eat
  • social contagion can also work in a positive way
  • study says that it tends to be groups of people that gain weight at the same time
105
Q

stress

A

A psychological and physiological reaction that occurs when perceived demands exceed existing resources to meet those demands

  • some stress can be positive (when doing simple tasks)
  • too much stress results in poor cognitive performance
  • these stressful thoughts occupy our working memory
106
Q

System of appraisal that involved determining whether a threat exists

A

primary appraisal

107
Q

A system of appraisal that involved determining if one can cope with a certain threat

A

secondary appraisal

108
Q

System of appraisal

A

cognitive act of assessing and evaluating a situation or event and the demands of that event

109
Q

fight-or-flight response

A

Sympathetic nervous system response resulting in release of epinephrine and norepinephrine

110
Q

hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

A

A neural and endocrine circuit that provides communication between the nervous system (hypothalamus) and the endocrine system (pituitary glands)
-release of cortisol (enzyme that reduces stress)

111
Q

what is the difference between the fight or flight response and the HPA?

A
  • fight or flight involves the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system and stimulates the adrenal medulla (release of epinephrine and norepinephrine)
  • HPA involves the hypothalamus, the anterior pituitary gland, and the adrenal cortex (release of cortisol)
112
Q

general adaptation system (GAS)

A

A theory of stress responses involving stages of alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

113
Q

what happens during the ‘alarm’ stage of the general adaptation system?

A

Activation of fight or flight and HPA axis

-initial recognition of a threat

114
Q

what happens during the ‘resistance’ stage of the general adaptation system?

A
  • coping with the event

- getting over the initial thought

115
Q

what happens during the ‘exhaustion’ stage of the general adaptation system?

A
  • responses are going to decline

- can result in damage to our body, can lead to illnesses, run out of energy

116
Q

how can prolonged stress have a negative effect on our brain?

A
  • cortisol receptors decline when stressed all the time

- too much cortisol deteriorates hippocampus

117
Q

what are oxytocin and vasopressin? what are their effects on our body?

A

Typically associated with social behaviour and bonding

  • higher levels report better relationship qualities than people with lower levels
  • these react with immune system
  • counter-acts the effects or cortisol
118
Q

oxytocin and vasopressin are positively correlated with ______ and ______

A

couple’s positive behaviour, fast healing wounds

119
Q

psychoneuroimmnology

A

The study of the relationship between the immune system and the nervous system functioning

120
Q

There is a ______ immune response during high periods of stress
-ex: exam period

A

reduced

121
Q

Norepinephrine supports cancer cell growth, what enzyme can magnify this effect? Therefore, people will more positive attitudes, (less ______), are more likely to survive things like cancer

A

cortisol, cortisol

122
Q

Men under chronic stress are 30% more likely to die from/develop coronary heart disease

True or False?

A

true

123
Q

common stress responses: type A personality

A

Describes people who tend to be impatient, worry about time, and who are easily angered, competitive, and highly motivated

124
Q

common stress responses: type B personality

A

Describes people who are more laid back and characterized by patient, easygoing, and relaxed

125
Q

The concept that hostility and anger are linker to coronary heart disease was developed by psychologists

True of False?

A

false, it was developed by cardiologists

126
Q

our outlook on life can predict health outcomes

True or False?

A

true, people who are more optimistic tend to have longer life expectancy

127
Q

coping

A

The process used to manage demands, stress, and conflict

128
Q

Problem focused coping

A

try to deal with the causer of their problem, making a plan to eliminate the source of the stress
-used in situations where the problem is actually solvable

129
Q

Emotion focused coping

A

managing your emotional reactions to a stressor

  • when the problem isn’t easily solvable (family death, job loss)
  • can try to distract yourself, seek out social support
130
Q

the Nun study

A
  • well constructed study
  • Nuns had to write autobiographies (in their late teens)
  • the Nuns who had more positive content in their autobiography had lower mortality rates at any given age

-in the study, more than 1/3 of the Nuns brains had signs of full-blown Alzheimer’s, non of which showed symptoms when they were alive

131
Q

pessimistic explanatory style

A

The tendency to interpret and explain negative events as internally based (i.e. internal locus of control)

132
Q

how would a neurotic person deal with a stressful situation?

A

negative affectivity: tendency to respond to problems with a pattern of anxiety, hostility, anger, guilt, or nervousness
-these people don’t cope with stress very well

133
Q

A person who is said to be extroverted/agreeable would most likely deal with a stressor in which manner?

A
  • they seek out help from others

- beneficial consequences for coping

134
Q

someone who is said to be conscientious would most likely deal with a stressor in which manner?

A

Distancing: suppressing emotions to reduce the effect of stress on other responsibilities

135
Q

people that are open to experience are more likely to respond to a stressor in which way?

A

-tend to be aware of and responsive to their emotions

136
Q

resilience

A

The ability to effectively recover from illness or adversity

137
Q

expressive writing therapy

A
  • when a person whose had some kind of trauma is prompted to write about the event
  • can create short term stress but helps in the long run
138
Q

post traumatic growth

A

The capacity to grow and experience long-term positive effects in response to negative events

  • also able to cope with future events more effectively
  • the result of coping, not the stressful event
139
Q

mindfulness/open-monitoring meditation

A

Involves attending to all thoughts, sensations, and feelings without attempting to judge or control them

140
Q

concentrative/focused attention meditation

A

Individual focuses on a specific thought or sensation

141
Q

is mediation an effective way to cope with stress? why?

A
  • several studies found that meditation is quite effective in reducing psychological and physiological stress
  • enhances peoples cognitive control processes
142
Q

brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)

A

A protein in the nervous system that promotes survival, growth, and formation of new synapses
-slows the progression of Alzheimer’s

143
Q

learned helplessness

A

An acquired suppression of avoidance or escape behaviour in response to unpleasant, uncontrollable circumstances
-individual learns actions cannot remove the stress in one situation, then generalizes this learning to other situations

144
Q

compensatory control

A

Psychological strategies that people use to preserve a sense of non-random order when personal control is compromised

  • trying to seek order
  • ex: superstitions, conspiracy theories

PSYC 1200 (5 decks)

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