Chapters 3 and 4 Flashcards
(186 cards)
1
Q
learning
A
the way in which we acquire new behaviors
stimuli + response
2
Q
stimulus
A
anything to which an organism can respond , including sensory inputs
3
Q
habituation
A
repeated exposure to the same stimuli can cause a decrease in response
4
Q
dishabituation
A
recovery of a response to a stimulus after habituation has occurred
5
Q
associative learning
A
creation of a pairing between two stimuli between and a response
6
Q
classical conditioning
A
type of associative learning that takes advantage of the biological instinctual responses to create associations between tow unrelated stimuli
7
Q
unconditioned stimulus
A
any stimulus that brings about a reflexive response
8
Q
unconditioned response
A
innate or reflexive response
9
Q
neutral stimuli
A
do not elicit a response
10
Q
conditioned stimulus
A
neutral stimulus, that with association, causes a reflexive response
11
Q
extinction
A
organism becomes habituated to conditioned stimulus
12
Q
spontaneous recovery
A
after some time, extinct conditioned stimulus is presented, week conditioned response may be exhibited
13
Q
generalization
A
broadening effect by which aa stimulus appears similar enough to the conditioned stimulus that it can also elicit the conditioned response
14
Q
discrimination
A
organism learns to distinguish between two similar stimuli
15
Q
operant conditioning
A
links voluntary behaviors with consequences in an effort to alter the frequency of the behaviors
16
Q
behaaviorism
A
Father is B F Skinner
theory that all behaviors are conditioned
17
Q
reinforcement
A
process of increasing the likelihood that an individual will perform a behavior
18
Q
positive reinforcers
A
increase a behavior by adding a positive consequence following a desired behavior
19
Q
negative reinforcers
A
remove something unpleasant in order to increase the frequency of a behavior
20
Q
escape learning
A
role of the behavior is to reduce the unpleasantness of something that already exists
21
Q
avoidance learning
A
prevent the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen
22
Q
primary reinforcer
A
a treat that the animal responds to naturally
23
Q
secondary reinforcer
A
a conditioned stimulus
24
Q
discrimintive stimulus
A
indicated that the reward is potentially available in an operant conditioning paradigm
25
punishment
uses conditioning to reduce the occurrence of a behvior
26
positive punishment
adds an unpleasant punishment iin order to reduce behavior
27
negative punsihment
reduction of a behavior due to stimulus being removed
28
fixed-ratio schedules
reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performances of that behavior
29
continuous reinforcement
reward every time task is performed
30
variable-ratio schedules
reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances
31
fixed-interval schedule
reinforce the first instance of a behavior after a specified time period has elapsed
32
variable-interval schedules
reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying amount of time
33
shaping
process of rewarding increasingly specific behaviors
34
latent learning
learning that occurs without a reward, but that is spontaneously demonstrated once a reward is introduced
35
problem solving
ability to analyze the situation and respond correctly the first time
36
instinctive drift
overcoming instinctual behaviors
37
observational learning
process of learning a new behavior or gaining information by watching others
38
mirror neurons
located in frontal and parietal lobes of the cerebral cortex
| fire when someone performs task as well as when you observe someone performing a task
39
modeling
people learn what behaviors are acceptable by watching others perform them
40
encoding
process of putting new information into memory
41
automatic processing
information that is gained without effort
42
controlled processing
effortful
| active memorizing
43
visual encoding
visualization
44
acoustic encoding
storing sounds
45
semantic encoding
putting info into meaningful context
46
self-reference effect
putting info into the context of our own lives
47
maintenance rehearsal
repetition of aa piece of info to either keep in working memory or to store in short term for now, and eventually long term memory
48
mnemonics
common way to memorize information
49
method of loci
associating each item in the list with a location along the route through a building that has already been memorized
50
peg-word
associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers
51
chunking
grouping individual elements on a list based on meaning
52
sensory memory
consists of both iconic and echoic memory (vision and audition)
lasts only a short time, if unattended to
53
whole-report
when asked to recall whole list of letters, can only recall 3 or 4
54
partial-report
when asked to recall a row, can do so with 100% accuracy
55
short-term memory
7_+2 rule for number of items, lasts only for about 30 seconds
56
hippocampus
where short-term memory is housed until consolidated to long-term memory
57
working memory
enables us to keep aa few pieces of info in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that information
58
elaborative rehearsal
way of keeping info at the forefront of consciousness
| association of the info to knowledge already stored in long-term memory
59
implicit memory
procedural
| consists of our skills and conditioned responses
60
explicit memory
declarative
consists of the memories that require conscious recall
semantic memory: facts we know
episodic: our experiences
61
rettrieval
process of demonstrating that something learning has been retained
62
recall
retrieval and statement of previously learning information
63
relearning
able to re-memorize much easier the second time through
64
semantic network
brain links concepts together based on similar meaning
65
spreading activation
when one node of our semantic network is activated, the other linked concepts are unconsciously activated
66
priming
recall is aided by first being presented with a word or phrase that is close to desired semantic memory
67
context effects
memory is aided by being in physical location where encoding took place
68
state-dependent memory
a person is more likely to recall memory in same mental state they created the memory
69
serial position effect
higher recall for both first few and last few items on a list
70
primacy effect
remember early items
71
recency effect
to remember later items
72
Alzheimer's disease
degenerative brain disorder thought to be linked to a loss of Ach in neurons linked to the hippocampus
neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques
73
sundowning
side effect of middle-to-late stage Alzheimer's
| increase in dysfunction in late afternoon and evening
74
Korsakoff's syndrome
memory lost caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain
75
retrograde amnesia
loss of previously formed memories
76
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
77
confabulation
creating vivid but fabricated memories
78
agnosia
loss of ability to recognize objects
79
interference
retrieval error caused by existence of other, usually similar info
80
proactive interference
old info is interfering with new learning
81
retroactive interference
new information causes forgetting of old info
82
prospective memory
remembering to perform a task at some point in the future
83
misinformation effect
memories being affected by outside sources
84
source-monitoring error
confusion between semantic and episodic memory
| confusing context of the memories
85
neuroplasticity
as brains develop, neural connections form rapidly in response to stimuli
86
synaptic pruning
weak neural connections are broken while strong ones are bolstered
87
long-term potentiation
as stimulus is repeated, stimulated neurons become more efficient at releasing neurotransmitters, receptor sites on other side of synapse increase, increasing receptor density
88
cognition
how our brains process and react to the info presented to us by the world
89
dual-coding theory
states that both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store info
90
information processing model
thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
stimuli must be analyzed by the brain in order to be useful in decision-making
decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems
problem solving is dependent not only on a person's cognitive level, butt also on context and complexity of problem
91
cognitive development
development of one's ability to think and solve problems across lifespan
92
Jean Piaget stages of development
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
93
sensorimotor
0-2; manipulate environment, primary (sucking thumb) and secondary (throwing toys) reactions, object permanence
94
preoperational
2-7; symbolic thinking(pretend), egocentrism(imagine what other person may feel), and centrism(tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon)
lack concept of conservation: cannot focus on quantity of things
95
concrete operational
7-11; children can understand conservation, engage in logical thought when working with concrete objects
96
formal operational
11 and beyond; able to think logically about abstract ideas
97
Lev Vygotsky
proposed that the engine driving cognitive development is the child's internalization of their culture
98
fluid intelligence
problem-solving skills
99
crystallized intelligence
use of learned skills and knowledge
100
dementia
begins with impaired memory but eventually leads to impaired judgment and confusion
101
delirium
rapid fluctuation in cognitive function
102
mental set
tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
103
functional fixedness
inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
104
deductive reasoning
top-down; starts with a general set of rules and draws conclusions from the info given
105
inductive reasoning
bottom . up; starts with specific instances, then draws conclusions from them
106
heuristics
simplified principles used to make decisions, rules of thumb
107
availability heuristic
used when we try to decide how likely something is
108
representativeness heuristic
involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit stereotypical image
109
base rate fallacy
using stereotypical factors, while ignoring actual numerical information
110
disconfirmattion principle
evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution does not work
111
confirmation bias
tendency to focus on info that fits a person's beliefs
112
overconfidence
tendency view one's beliefs as undoubtedly correct
113
belief perserverance
refers to the inability to reject a particular belief despite
clear evidence to the contrary
114
emotion
subjective experience of a person
115
multiple intelligences
linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrspersonal
116
Stanford-Binet IQ test
mental age/chronological age * 100
117
reticular fromatioon
helps with awakeness and alertness
118
beta waves
alert, concentrating
119
alpha waves
awake, relaxing
120
stage 1 of sleep
as you doze off, theta waves
121
stage 2 of sleep
theta, sleep spindles, k complexes
122
stages 3 & 4 of sleep
slow-wave sleep; delta waves
hard to wake someone up
associated with cognitive development and growth hormone release
123
NREM
stages 1 through 4
124
REM
interspaced between cycles of the NREM sleep stages
125
sleep cycle
single complete progression through the sleep stages
126
circadian rhythms
24hour wake and sleep cycle
127
melatonin
serotonin-based, secreted from pineal gland, retina is connected to hypothalamus, which controls this gland
128
cortisol
a steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex
129
CRF
due increased light, secreted from hypothalamus
| leads to secretion of ACTH by the anterior pituitary, which leads to release of cortisol
130
activation-synthesis theory
idea that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circulatory
131
problem-solving dream theory
dreams are a way to solve problems while you are sleeping
132
cognitive process dream theory
dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
133
neurocognitive models of dreaming
unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
134
dyssomnias
disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep
insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea
135
parasomnias
abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep
night terrors, sleep walking
136
insomnia
difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
137
narcolepsy
lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep
138
cataplexy
loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep
139
sleep paralysis
sensation of being unable to move despite being awake
140
hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
hallucinations when going to sleep or awakening
141
sleep apnea
inability to breathe while asleep
142
might terrors
periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep
143
sleepwalking
usually occurs during SWS
144
hypnosis
person seems in control, but actually is in a highly suggestible state
145
hypnotic induction
hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject's level of concentration
146
meditation
produces a sense of relaxation and release from anxiety and worrying
147
depressants
reduce nervous system activity
148
alcohol
depressant, increases GABA receptor activity, increases dopamine levels=mild euphoria
effects logical reasoning
long term effects: cirrhosis, liver failure, pancreatic damage, gastric or duodenal ulcers, gastrointestinal cancer, brain disorders such as Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome due deficiency of thiamine (vitamin b)
149
barbituates
anxiety-reducing, sleep medication
150
benzodiazepines
increase GABA, cause relaxation
151
stimulants
cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system
152
amphetamines
increase arousal by releasing dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin and decreasing their reuptake
increased heart rate and blood pressure, euphoria, hyper-vigilance, grandeur, paranoia
long-term can lead to stroke
153
cocaine
decreases reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine
quick and potent effects
sometimes used in surgery of nose and throat, can lead to heart attack and strokes
154
ectasy
acts as an hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine
feelings of euphoria, increased alertness, overwhelming sense of well-being and connectedness
155
opium
opiates (morphine and codeine) and opioids (oxycodone, hydrocone, heroin)
bind to opioid receptors in the PNS
156
heroin
diacetylmorphine; body rapidly metabolizes heroin to morphine
treatment for opioid addiction may be methadone = lower risk for overdose
157
hallucinogens
lysergic acid diethyamide (LSD)
Interacts with serotonin
increased heart rate and blood pressure, dilation of pupils, sweating, increased body temperature
158
marijuana
cannabis sativa and cannabis indica; THC
eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short-term memory, increased heart rate, increased appetite, and lowered BP
159
mesolimbic reward paathway
includes nucleus (Nac) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) connected by medial forebrain bundle (MFB)
gambling and falling in love
160
attention
concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment
161
selective attention
focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring all other stimuli
162
cocktail party phenomenon
hearing your name across the room while talking to someone
evidence of a different interpretation of selective attention
163
divided attention
ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
164
language
fundamental to the creation of communities
165
phonolgy
actual sound of language
166
morphology
structure of words
167
semantics
refers to the association of meaning with a word
168
syntax
refers to how words come together to form sentences
169
pragmatic
dependency of language on context
170
prosody
rhythm, cadence, inflection of our voices
171
errors of growth
child applies a grammatical rule
172
babbling
precursor to language
173
nativist (biological) theory
innate capacity for language
174
language acquisition device (LAD)
theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb languages
175
critical period
language acquisition between two years and puberty
176
sensitive period
time where environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability
177
learning (behaviorist) theory
BF Skinner, acquisition by operant conditioning
178
social interactionist theory
interplay between biological and social processes
179
Whorfian hypothesis
the way we think about the world, determined by the content language
180
Broca's area
controls motor function of speech
181
Wernicke's area
for language comprehension
182
arcuate fasciculus
connects Wernicke's area and Broca's area
183
aphasia
deficit of language production or comprehension
184
broca's aphasia
sensation of word on the tip of your tongue
185
Wernicke's aphasia
comprehension of speech is lost
186
conduction aphasia
patient is unable to repeat something that is said
