Chapters 6 & 7: Learning and Memory Flashcards
(144 cards)
1
Q
Learning
A
a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience
2
Q
Why do psychologists who study learning usually stick with the behaviorist perspective?
A
the behaviorist tradition of establishing cause and effect enables relationships to be found between stimuli and behavior
3
Q
Non-associative learning
A
not forming associations between stimuli during learning
4
Q
How does learning occur?
A
it is a result of repeated exposure of a stimulus
5
Q
Habituation
A
after being repeatedly exposed to a stimulus you begin to decrease your response to it
6
Q
What distinguishes habituation from sensory adaptation?
A
sensory adaptation occurs at the level of the sensory organs, and habituation occurs in the Central Nervous System (CNS)
7
Q
Dishabituation
A
introducing a novel stimulus to decrease habituation to former stimulus
8
Q
Sensitization
A
increased response to a stimulus after repeated exposure
9
Q
When you become sensitized to something, is the response more localized or a full-body effect?
A
Full-body effect
10
Q
Classical conditioning
A
forming an association between a stimulus and a response in the environment
11
Q
Reflex
A
involuntary response to a particular stimulus
12
Q
What are the two types of reflexes?
A
conditioned and unconditioned
13
Q
Unconditioned Stimulus
A
any stimulus that causes us to respond a certain way without learning
14
Q
Unconditioned Response
A
automatic response to unconditioned stimulus
15
Q
Neutral stimulus
A
does not elicit any type of responding
16
Q
Conditioned stimulus
A
a previously neutral stimulus (NS) that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (US) becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned response
17
Q
Conditioned response
A
learned response to a conditioned stimulus (CS)
18
Q
Classical conditioning
A
presenting a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned, unlearned stimulus, and through those pairings that neutral stimulus becomes what we call a conditioned stimulus
19
Q
Acquisition
A
development of a conditioned response as a result of pairing the conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus
20
Q
Contingency
A
you will generally condition faster if a stimulus is more intense
21
Q
Contiguity
A
the conditioned stimulus has to appear close in time to the unconditioned stimulus
22
Q
What did Pavlov believe had to happen for an association to be formed with a stimulus?
A
that there had to be some kind of temporal contiguity
23
Q
Short delayed procedure
A
if the conditioned stimulus proceeds the unconditioned stimulus by less than 30 seconds
24
Q
When the US is absent the ____ is absent
A
CS
25
Excitatory conditioning
the CS is exciting or getting you ready for the US
26
Test trial
present CS without the UCS and measure the magnitude of the CR
27
Conditioning trials
where we're learning the relationship between the CS and the US and presenting the conditioned stimulus
28
Extinction
present CS without the UCS repeatedly
29
What does extinction decrease?
the strength of the conditioned response
30
Unconditioned stimulus association is eliminated by extinction (true/false)
false
31
Spontaneous recovery
after following extinction, waiting at least 24 hours after extinction occurs and reintroducing CS to get a renewed response to it
32
Renewal effect
changing an aspect of the initial trial to get a stronger renewed response to the CS
33
Generalization
conditioning to a trained CS generalizes to similar stimuli
34
How would you perform a test trial for generalization?
present CS (no UCS), see how large of a CR occurs to them
35
Generalization gradient
a graphic description of the strength of responding in the presence of stimuli that are similar to the original condition or training stimulus, the CS
36
As you move ______ from training stimulus the response rate starts to _______
further away, decline
37
Discrimination
conditioning a person or non-human animal to respond only following the training stimulus
38
High-order or Second-order conditioning
using more than one conditioned stimulus to pair a conditioned and unconditioned stimulus through a series of trials
39
Sensory Pre-Conditioning
begins with two stimuli that are already associated potentially in our environment
40
Biological Preparedness
the presence of certain conditioned stimuli incites an unconditioned response
41
A conditioned taste aversion often occurs due to feeling sick after consuming a specific food or drink you've just had for the first time
True
42
Classical Conditioning can increase our immunity
True
43
What is the nature of a classical conditioning response?
involuntary (reflexive)
44
What is the nature of an operant conditioning response?
usually voluntary, but can be both voluntary and involuntary
45
What is the significance of E.L. Thorndike's puzzle boxes?
they showed that the connection between stimuli in the box and the escape response was strengthened by reinforcement
46
Law of Effect
a response that's followed by a pleasant consequence, which is a reward, will tend to be repeated
47
Operant Conditioning
consequences influence future probability of behavior
48
What is shaping?
occurs when you reinforce successive approximations, which are gradual steps to the required response
49
What are the two main types of operant consequences?
reinforcer and punisher
50
Reinforcer
an event that follows a behavior and results in an increase in the future probability of that behavior
51
What is a primary reinforcer?
satisfies one of your biological needs
52
What is a secondary reinforcer?
acquires its value through conditioning, through learning
53
Punisher
an event that follows a behavior and results in a decrease in the future probability of that behavior
54
What is a primary punisher?
innately punishing
55
What is a secondary punisher?
becomes a learned punisher
56
Positive Reinforcement
presenting a pleasant stimulus
57
Negative Reinforcement
removing an unpleasant stimulus
58
Positive Punishment
presenting an unpleasant stimulus
59
Negative Punishment
removing a pleasant stimulus
60
What is three-term contingency?
Antecedent- Behavior- Consequence
61
Antecedent
cues that can tell you whether the consequence for your behavior will occur
62
What are the two types of behaviors?
desired and undesired
63
What are the types of consequences?
positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, extinction, escape/avoidance
64
What is the schedule of reinforcement?
pattern of delivering the reinforcement during a behavioral trial
65
Continuous reinforcement
every behavior is reinforced
66
Intermittent reinforcement
only reinforcing behaviors some of the time
67
Ratio schedules
number of responses
68
Interval schedules
based on time; how much time has elapsed since last reinforcement
69
Fixed ratio (FR)
giving the reinforcer on a fixed basis after # of times desired behavior occurred
70
Variable ratio (VR)
occurs based on an average ratio; desired outcome will not occur every trial
71
Fixed interval (FI)
occurring regularly but only after a certain amount of time has elapsed
72
Variable interval (VI)
based on an average; it's irregular, but it's also based on time
73
Extinction
reinforcement no longer follows behavior
74
Generalization
operant response occurs to a new stimulus that is similar to the stimulus present during original learning
75
Discrimination
operant response is made to one stimulus but not to another
76
Stimulus generalization
the tendency for a behavioral response that has been reinforced (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus to occur (or be suppressed) in the presence of a similar stimulus
77
Stimulus discrimination
the tendency of responses to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not another that differs from it on some dimension
78
Latent learning
learning can occur in the absence of an immediate reward
79
Observational learning
learning that occurs by watching someone else
80
Social learning
when we see changes in behavior that are brought about by interactions with others/observing others
81
Sensory memory
a brief storage memory for all of our senses
82
Attention
a type of control process that helps to shift information from one memory store to another
83
Encoding
where sensory and perceptual information is transformed into memory traces
84
Sensory buffer
brief information about raw stimulus held for fractions of a second to a few seconds
85
Iconic memory
brief impression or afterimage that you got from a sensory stimulus that fades away very quickly unless it's attended to
86
What did Sperling's study show?
that when showed a 3 by 4 array of letters within a fraction of a second, participants only remembered approximately 4-5 letters (whole report), and when participants were shown a similar array after each row had been associated with a sound, they reported remembering approximately 10-12 letters (partial report)
87
Is delay time longer between iconic memory or echoic memory?
echoic memory
88
What is the purpose of the serial position curve?
it defines the distinction between long-term and short-term memory
89
Primacy effect
being better able to recall the first few words in the list
90
Recency effect
being better able to recall the last few words in the list
91
Central executive
coordinates attention and the exchange of information among the other memory components
92
Phonological loop
has to do with the rehearsal of sounds and uses an auditory or phonological code
93
Visuospatial sketchpad
maintains visual images and also spatial layouts in a visual spatial code
94
Episodic buffer
integrating the elements from the other memory stores that are getting activated
95
Information from working memory is lost after ______ seconds.
18-20
96
As determined by George Miller, the number of items that can be stored in auditory memory is________.
7 + or - 2
97
As determined by Nelson Cohen, how many chunks of information can be stored in auditory memory?
4
98
What is the word length effect?
more information can be held in shorter words
99
Long-term memory storage is finite (True/False)
false
100
What are the two types of long-term memory?
declarative/explicit and nondeclarative/implicit
101
What distinguishes declarative/explicit memory?
memories can be verbalized
102
Semantic memory
knowing things; often factual information most people know
103
Episodic memory
your memories of past experiences
104
Nondeclarative/implicit memory
memories you have that produce behaviors that you can perform without awareness
105
Procedural memory
your skills and your habits
106
Emotional responses
classical conditioning involving the reflex arc or even evolving to involve emotional responses to stimuli
107
Priming
when you're given a prime word, and that word causes activation to spread in your brain to related words
108
Visual analysis
shallow, produces fairly poor memory
109
Acoustic/rhyme analysis
moderate level of processing that produces better memory
110
Conceptual or semantic analysis
causes a deep level of processing and produces the best memory
111
Semantic encoding
processing the concept's meaning
112
The Generation Effect
requires you to produce information rather than just read it
113
Paired Associations
forming pairs to link information together
114
Hierarchies
structured outline of concepts
115
Self-Referent Encoding
use your own examples of concepts
116
Mnemonic devices
techniques to improve memory for specific information
117
Acronyms
series of letters that stand for something
118
Acrostics
sentence composed to help you remember specific concepts
119
Narratives
writing a story to remember information
120
Rhymes
creating a rhyme to remember something, a moderate level of processing
121
Linking
images that contain the information
122
Alan Paveo
dual code theory
123
Dual code theory
both visual and verbal information used to represent concepts
124
Method of Loci
locations along a path or narrative
125
Pegword method
taking a familiar rhyme, each line of which is a peg, and associating a specific concept with each peg
126
Encoding specificity
retrieval is most effective when it occurs in the same contexts as encoding
127
Flashbulb memories
extremely vivid and detailed memories about an event
128
Is it better to study over multiple sessions or to cram the night before an exam?
study over multiple sessions
129
Encoding failure
information never transferred into long-term memory in the first place
130
Storage decay
information in long-term memory disappears with the passage of time
131
Retrieval failure
information is supposedly in long-term memory but it is unable to be retrieved back into short-term memory
132
Proactive interference
old information is better recalled than newer information
133
Retroactive interference
new information is better recalled than older information
134
What is the significance of Herman Von Ebbinghaus?
he is the founder of psychological memory research, and he discovered that most memory is lost within the first few hours
135
Amnesias are usually a result of what?
injury or disease
136
Amnesia
profound loss of memory ability
137
Retrograde amnesia
memory for past is lost; most severe for recent events
138
Anterograde amnesia
inability or limited ability to form new memories after onset of amnesia
139
Schemas
organized clusters of memories that contain your knowledge about events and objects and ideas
140
Accommodation
constantly adding to and changing our schemas
141
False memory
remembering an event that did not occur
142
Misinformation effect
information occurring after an event alters memory for that event
143
Source monitoring and source misattribution
misidentifying where information came from or who gave it to you
144
Confabulation
confusing events that happened to someone else with one that happened to you
