CHEM Flashcards
(573 cards)
1
Q
study of matter and the changes it undergoes. it is the central and ancient science.
A
chemistry
2
Q
basic unit of inheritance
A
gene
3
Q
selected healthy gene is delivered to a patient’s cell to cure or ease such disorders
A
gene therapy
4
Q
by-product of many chemical processes
A
energy
5
Q
viable source of energy for the future
A
solar energy
6
Q
Conversion of sunlight directly to electricity
A
Photovoltaic Cells
7
Q
Concerns about radioactive wastes from fission processes
A
Nuclear Fission
8
Q
Promotes the heating of Earth’s atmosphere
A
Greenhouse Gas
8
Q
Process that occurs in the sun and the other stars, generate huge amounts of energy without producing much dangerous radioactive waste.
A
Nuclear Fusion
9
Q
Materials that have no electrical resistance and can therefore conduct electricity with no energy loss.
- At very low temperature (more than 400F below freezing point of water)
A
Superconductors
10
Q
Engine that drives the ongoing computer revolution
A
Microprocessor
11
Q
Replacing silicon with molecules
A
Molecular computing
12
Q
Possibility to grow larger and better crops
A
Biotechnology
13
Q
Insects communicate with one another by emitting and reacting to special molecules
A
Pheromones
14
Q
Things we can see and touch
A
Macroscopic
15
Q
Cannot experience without modern technology and our imaginations
A
Microscopic
16
Q
Systematic approach to research
A
Scientific Method
17
Q
General observations about the system
A
Qualitative
18
Q
Comprising numbers obtained by various measurements of the system
A
Quantitative
19
Q
A tentative explanation for a set of observations
A
Hypothesis
20
Q
A concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relationship between phenomena that is always the same under the sa,e conditions
A
Law
21
Q
A unifying principle that explains a body of facts and/or those laws that are based on them
A
Theory
22
Q
Made in rigid, step by step fashion.
A
Scientific Progress
23
Q
Anything that occupies space and has mass
A
Matter
24
Has definite (constant) composition and distinct properties.
Substance
25
A combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain their distinct identities
Mixture
26
Do not have a constant composition
Mixture
27
Same composition all throughout
Homogeneous Mixture
28
Not uniform in composition
Heterogeneous Mixture
29
A substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means
Element
30
Number of the all elements
112
31
Number of naturally occurring elements
83
32
What element is Aurum
Gold
33
What element is Ferrum?
Iron
34
What element is Natrium?
Sodium
35
A substance composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions
Compound
36
Molecules are held close together in an orderly fashion with little freedom of motion
Solid
37
Molecules are close together but are not held so rigidly in position and can move past one another
Liquid
38
Molecules are separated by distances that are large compared with the size of the molecules
Gas
39
Temperature at which this transaction occurs
Melting Point
40
Conversion takes place
Boiling Point
41
Color
Melting Point
Boiling Point
Physical Properties
42
It can be measured and observed without changing the composition or identity of a substance.
Physical Property
43
Carry out a chemical change
Chemical Property
44
This digestive action is an other example of a chemical change.
Enzymes
45
This depends on how much matter is being considered
Extensive Property
46
Quantity of matter in a given sample of a substance
Mass
47
TRUE OR FALSE:
More matter means more mass
TRUE
48
Length cubed
Volume
49
Extensive or Intensive:
Volume
Extensive
50
This does not depend on how much matter is being considered
Intensive Property
51
Mass of an object divided by its volume
Density
52
Intensive or Extensive:
Density
Intensive
53
Intensive or Extensive:
Temperature
Intensive
54
It can be determined directly
Macroscopic properties
55
Atomic or molecular scale, must be determined by an indirect method
Microscopic Properties
56
the international authority on units and proposed SI units
General Conference of Weights and Measures
57
SI units stands for
International System of Units
58
Measure of the amount of matter in an object
Mass
59
The force that gravity exerts on an object
Weight
60
Volume occupied by one cubic decimeter
Liter
61
commonly used for solid and liquid densities
grams per milliliter
62
most commonly used scale
Fahrenheit scale
63
Normal Freezing Point of water
32F or 0C
64
Normal Boiling Point of water
212F or 100C
65
the SI base unit of temperature and the absolute temperature scale
Kelvin
66
the lowest temperature that can be attained theoretically
0 K
67
TRUE OR FALSE:
One degree Celsius is equivalent to one kelvin
TRUE
68
System to use when working with very large and very small numbers
Scientific Notation
69
The meaningful digits in a measured or calculated quantity
Significant figures
70
In chain calculations, that is, calculations involving more than one step
Modified Procedure
71
Tells us how close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity that was measured
Accuracy
72
How closely two or more measurements of the same quantity agree with one another
Precision
73
Based on the relationship between different units that express the same physical quantity
Factor-label method or Dimensional Analysis
74
Hypothesized that our universe burst into being billions of years ago in a gigantic explosion or Big Bang
George Gamow
75
The searingly hot universe has cooled down to a mere ____
3 K or -270C
76
Supports Gamow's hypotheses
Big Bang Theory
77
The first elements formed in the early stages of cosmic evolution
Helium and Hydrogen
78
A strong source of light and radio signals that is thought to be an exploding galaxy at the edge of the universe
Quasar
79
Distance traveled by light in a year
Light year
80
Process where electron was stripped from hydrogen by light from a quasar
Ionization
81
He expressed the belief that all matter consists of very small, indivisible particles
Democritus
82
means uncuttable or indivisible
atomos
83
He formulated a precise definition of the indivisible building blocks of matter that we call atoms.
John Dalton
84
Only involves separation, combination or rearrangement of atoms.
Chemical Reaction
85
Different samples of the same compound always contain its constituent elements in the same proportion by mass.
Law of definite proportions
86
Stated the Law of definite proportions
Joseph Proust
87
stated the Law of multiple proportions
John Dalton
88
The law states that if two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole numbers.
Law of Multiple Proportions
89
Gave the first detailed description of color blindness
John Dalton
90
He was an indifferent experimenter and also formulated several gas laws
John Dalton
91
First person to isolate sugar from grapes
Joseph Louis Proust
92
Law that matter that can be neither created nor destroyed.
Law of Conservation of Mass
93
Basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination
Atom
94
Made up of even smaller particles
Subatomic particles
95
the emission and transmission of energy through space in the form of waves.
Radiation
96
Forerunner of the television tube and the glass tube from which most of the air has been evacuated
Cathode Ray Tube
97
Two metal plates are connected to a high-voltage source, the negatively charged plate
Cathode
98
emits an invisible ray
cathode
99
drawn to the positively charged plate
cathode ray
100
positively charged plate that passes through a hole and continues to traveling to the other end of the tube
anode
101
a moving charged body behaves like a magnet and can interact with electric and magnetic fields through which it passes
Electromagnetic Theory
102
Attracted by the plate bearing positive charges and repelled by the plate bearing negative charges
Cathode ray
103
negatively charged particle
electrons
104
He used a cathode ray tube and his knowledge of electromagnetic theory to determine the ratio of electric charge to the mass of an individual electron.
J.J Thomson
105
He came up with -1.76x10^8 C/g
J.J Thomson
106
He found the charge of an electron to be -1.60x10^19C
RA Millikan
107
Mass of an electron
9.09 x10^-28 g
108
He noticed that cathode rays caused glass and metals to emit very unusual rays.
William Rontgen
109
penetrated matter, darkened covered photographic plates, and caused a variety of substances to fluoresce
X rays
110
He studied the fluorescent properties of substances
Antoine Becquerel
111
suggested the name radioactivity
Marie Curie
112
positively charged particles
Alpha rays
113
electrons and are deflected by negatively charged plate
Beta rays
114
consists of high-energy rays and have no charge and are not affected by an external field.
gamma rays
115
He determined the charge of the electron
Robert Andrews Millikan
116
Discovered Xrays
Wilhelm Konrad Rontgen
117
Discovered radioactivity in uranium
Antoine Henri Becquerel
118
He proposed that an atom could be thought of as a uniform, positive sphere of matter in which electrons are embedded like raisins in a cake called "plum pudding model"
Thomson
119
He decided to use alpha particles to probe the structure of atoms. Also, he used thin foils of gold as target for alpha particles.
Ernest Rutherford
120
He focused on the structure of the atomic nucleus and on radioactivity. He invented a device for measuring radiation.
Johannes Hans Wilhelm Geiger
121
a dense central core within the atom
nucleus
122
positively charged particles in the nucleus
protons
123
mass of proton, about 1840 times the mass of electrons
1.67252x10^-24 g
124
picometer equals to
1x10^-12 m
125
a typical atomic radius
100 pm
126
radius of an atomic nucleus
5x10^-3 pm
127
1 angstrom equals to
100 pm
128
He bombarded a thin sheet of berylium with alpha particles
James Chadwick
129
He named neutrons
James Chadwick
130
Electrically particles having a mass slightly greater than that of protons
neutrons
131
mass of electron
9.1095 x10^-28 g
132
coulomb of electron
-1.6022 x10^-19
133
coulomb of proton
+ 1.6022 x10^-19
134
mass of neutron
1.67495 x10^-24 g
135
number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element
atomic number (Z)
136
total number of neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an atom of an element
mass number (A)
137
atoms that have the same atomic number but different mass numbers
isotopes
138
one proton, no neutrons
protium (hydrogen)
139
one proton, one neutron
deuterium
140
one proton, two neutrons
tritium
141
First use of isotopes
nuclear reactors and atomic bomb
142
chart in which elements having similar chemical and physical properties are grouped together
periodic table
143
Horizontal rows in periodic table
periods
144
vertical columns in period table
groups or families
145
Atomic numbers of the elements that have not yet been named
Elements 110, 111, 112
146
a good conductor of heat and electricity
metal
147
usually a poor conductor of heat and electricity
nonmetal
148
it has properties that are intermediate between those of metals and nonmetals
metalloid
149
Group 1A elements are called
Alkali metals
150
Group2A elements are called
alkaline earth metals
151
Group 7A elements are called
halogens
152
Group 8A elements are called
noble gases
153
Aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical forces
molecule
154
it contain only two atoms
diatomic molecule
155
molecules containing more than two atoms
polyatomic molecules
156
charged species from neutral atom or molecule
ion
157
an ion with a net positive charge
cation
158
an ion whose net charge is negative
anion
159
formed from cations and anions
ionic compound
160
express the composition of molecules and ionic compounds in terms of chemical symbols
chemical formulas
161
shows the exact number of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of a substance
molecular formula
162
it is one of two or more distinct forms of an element
allotrope
163
two allotropic forms of the element carbon
diamond and graphite
164
simplest chemical formulas
empirical formula
165
true formulas of molecules
molecular formulas
166
naming of chemical compounds
nomenclature
167
can form more than one type of cation
transition metals
168
designating different cations with roman numerals
stock system
169
contain discrete molecular units
molecular compounds
170
B2H6
diborane
171
SiH4
silane
172
PH3
phosphine
173
substance that yields hydrogen ions when dissolved in water
acid
174
acids that contain hydrogen, oxygen and another element
oxoacids
175
H2CO3
Carbonic acid
176
ClO4
perchlorate
177
HClO4
perchloric acid
178
HClO3
chloric acid
179
ClO3
Chlorate
180
ClO2
chlorite
181
ClO
Hypochlorite
182
HClO2
chlorous acid
183
HClO
hypochlorous acid
184
a substance that yields hydroxide ions
base
185
compounds that have a specific number of water molecules attached to them
hydrates
186
no longer has water molecules associated with it
anhydrous
187
systematic name of water
dihydrogen oxide
188
systematic name for ammonia
trihydrogen nitride
189
laughing gas
n2o
190
common name marble/chalk/liimeston is
caco3
191
quicklime
cao
192
slaked lime
Ca(OH)2
193
baking soda
NaHCO3
194
washing soda
Na2CO3 . 10H2O
195
Epsom salt
MgSO4 . 7H2O
196
Milk of magnesia
Mg(OH)2
197
gypsum
CaSO4 . 2H2O
198
atoms of constituent elements in a particular compound are always combined in the same proportions by mass
law of definite proportions
199
the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in a ratio of small whole numbers
Law of multiple proportions
200
mass of the atom in atomic
atomic mass
201
amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities
mole
202
1 amu is equal to
1.661 x10^-24 g
203
the most direct and most accurate method for determining atomic and molecular masses
mass spectrometry
204
He developed the first mass spectrometer
F.W Aston
205
percent by mass of each element in a compound
percent composition by mass
206
formula of percent composition of an element
(n x MW of an element)/(MW of compound) x100
207
process in which a substance is changed into one or more new substances
chemical reaction
208
uses chemical symbols to show what happens during a chemical reaction
chemical equation
209
starting materials in a chemical reaction
reactants
210
substance formed as a result of a chemical reaction
product
211
quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction
stoichiometry
212
stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the number of moles of each substance
mole method
213
proportions indicated by the balanced equation
stoichiometric amounts
214
reactant used up first in a reaction
limiting reagent
215
reactants present in quantities greater than necessary to react with the quantity of the limiting reagent
excess reagents
216
amount of product that would result if all the limiting reagent reacted
theoretical yield
217
amount of product actually obtained from a reaction
actual yield
218
the proportion of the actual yield to the theoretical yield
percent yield
219
three dimensional structure
crystal lattice
220
basic structural unit of a crystal lattice
unit cell
221
uses to find the length of body centered cubic unit cell
x-ray diffraction
222
homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
solution
223
substance present in a smaller amount
solute
224
substance present in a larger amount
solvent
225
the solute initially is a liquid or a solid and the solvent is water
aqueous solutions
226
substance that, when dissolved in water, results in a solution that can conduct electricity
electrolyte
227
it does not conduct electricity when dissolved in water
nonelectrolyte
228
HF, CH3COOH, HNO2, NH3, H2O are
weak electrolyte
229
HCl, HNO3, HClO4, H2SO4, NaOH, Ba(OH)2, Ionic compounds are
strong electrolytes
230
a polar solvent
water
231
the process in which an ion is surrounded by water molecules arranged in a specific manner
hydration
232
separation of acids and bases into ions
ionization
233
the reaction can occur in both directions
reversible reaction
234
activity is continuous on the molecular level
chemical equilibrium
235
results in the formation of an insoluble product or precipitate
precipitation reaction
236
an insoluble solid that separates from the solution
precipitate
237
maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature
solubility
238
Halides of Ag, Hg2, and Pb are
insoluble
239
sulfates of Ag, Ca, Sr, Ba, and Pb are
insoluble
240
Compounds containing alkali metal ions and the ammonium ion
soluble
241
compounds containing alkali metal ions and the Ba ion
soluble
242
formulas of the compounds are written as though all species existed as molecules or whole units
molecular equation
243
shows dissolved species as free ions
ionic equation
244
ions that are not involved in the overall reaction
spectator ions
245
shows only the species that actually take part in the reaction
net ionic equation
246
reacts with carbonates and bicarbonates
Acids
247
proton donor
bronsted acid
248
proton acceptor
bronsted base
249
hydrated proton, H3O
hydronium ion
250
each unit of the acid yields one hydrogen ion upon ionization
monoprotic acids
251
each unit of the acid gives up two H+ ions
diprotic acid
252
yields three H+ ions
triprotic acids
253
reaction between an acid and a base
neutralization reaction
254
proton-transfer processes
Redox reaction
255
explicitly shows the electrons involved in a redox reaction
half-reaction
256
half-reaction that involves loss of electrons
oxidation reaction
257
half-reaction that involves gain of electrons
reduction reaction
258
donates electrons
reducing agent
259
accepts electrons
oxidizing agent
260
number of charges the atom if electrons were transferred completely
oxidation number
261
two or more substances combine to form a single product
combination reactions
262
breakdown of a compound into two or more components
decomposition reaction
263
an ion in a compound is replaced by an ion of another element
displacement reaction
264
convenient summary of the results of many possible displacement reactions
activity series or electrochemical series
265
an element in one oxidation state is simultaneously oxidized and reduced
disproportionation reaction
266
the procedure for preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated one
dilution
267
a solution of accurately known concentration
standard solution
268
the point at which the acid has completely reacted with or been neutralized by the base
equivalence point
269
substances that have distinctly different colors in acidic and basic media
indicators
270
valuable, lightweight metal used as a structural material
magnesium
271
devised a procedure for detecting arsenic
James Marsh
272
the arsenic in Napoleon's hair was detected using a technique called
Neutron Activation
273
The nature and magniture of the attractive forces among the molecules
Intermolecular Forces
274
Who formulated the second law of motion
Sir Isaac Newton
275
Most familiar instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure
Barometer
276
studied the motion of fluids. he also invented a calculating machine.
blaise pascal
277
invented barometer and the word "torr" came from
Evangelista Torricelli
278
device used to measure the pressure of gases other than the atmosphere.
manometer
279
normally used to measure pressures below atmospheric pressure
closed-tube manometer
280
better suited for measuring pressures equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure
open-tube manometer
281
studied the behavior of gases systematically and quantitatively
Robert Boyle
282
volume of a fixed amount of gas maintained at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the gas pressure
Boyle's Law
283
inventor of scientific apparatus and the first person to use hydrogen to inflate balloons
Jacques Alexandre Cesar Charles
284
balloon enthusiast. he ascended to an altitude of 20000 feet to collect air samples for analysis
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
285
Theoretically the lowest attainable temperature
-273.15 K
286
the volume of a fixed amount of gas maintained at constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.
Charles' Law
287
at constant pressure and temperature, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas present.
Avogadro's Law
288
describes the relationship among the four variables P,V,T and n
ideal gas equation
289
a hypothetical gas whose pressure-volume-temperature behavior can be completely accounted for by the ideal gas equation
ideal gas
290
the pressures of individual gas components in the mixture
partial pressures
291
total pressure of a mixture of gases is just the sum of the pressures that each gas would exert if it were present alone
dalton's law of partial pressure
292
dimensionless quantity that expresses the ratio of the number of moles of one component to the number of moles of all components present
mole fraction
293
gases can be compressed easily to occupy less volume
compressibility of gases
294
an average molecular speed
root mean square speed
295
gradual mixing of molecules of one gas with molecules of another by virtue of their kinetic properties
diffusion
296
super-cooled substance
Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC)
297
a process in which a laser light is directed at a beam of atoms, hitting them head on and dramatically slowing them down.
laser cooling
298
directed energy change resulting from a process
work
299
comes from the sun and is energy's primary energy source
radiant energy or solar energy
300
energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules
thermal energy
301
stored within the structural units of chemical substance
chemical energy
302
energy available by virtue of an object's position
potential energy
303
the total quantity of energy in the universe is assumed constant
law of conservation of energy
304
the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are at different temperature
Heat
305
the study of heat change in chemical reactions
Thermochemistry
306
the specific part of the universe that is of interest to us
system
307
the rest of the universe outside the system
surroundings
308
can exchange mass and energy, usually in the form of heat, with its surroundings
open system
309
allows the transfer of energy (heat) but not mass
open system
310
allows the transfer of energy (heat) but not mass
closed system
311
does not allow the transfer of either mass or energy
isolated system
312
any process that gives off heat that transfers thermal energy to the surroundings
exothermic process
313
reaction which heat has to be supplied to the system by the surroundings
endothermic process
314
difference between the enthalpies of the products and enthalpies of the reactants
enthalpy of reaction
315
show the enthalpy changes as well as the mass relationships
thermochemical equations
316
closed container designed specifically for this purpose
calorimeter
317
the measurement of heat changes
calorimetry
318
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of the substance by one degree celsius
specific heat
319
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given quantity of the substance by one degree celsius
heat capacity
320
heat change that results when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements at a pressure of 1 atm
standard enthalpy of formation
321
standard enthalpy
standard state
322
group of complex biological molecules
enzymes
323
the enthalpy of a reaction carried out an 1 atm
standard enthalpy of reaction
324
compounds that can be readily synthesized from their elements
the direct method
325
cannot be directly synthesized from their elements
the indirect method
326
when reactants are converted to products, the change in enthalpy is the same whether the reaction takes place in one step or in a series of steps
Hess's law
327
the heat generated or absorbed when a certain amount of solute dissolves in a certain amount of solvent
heat of solution or enthalpy of solution
328
the energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous ions
lattice energy
329
the enthalpy change associated with the hydration process. also the negative quantity for cations and anions.
heat of hydration
330
the heat change associated with the dilution process
heat of dilution
331
scientific study of the interconversion of heat and other kinds of energy
thermodynamics
332
the values of all relevant macroscopic properties, for example, composition, energy, temperature, pressure, and volume
state of a system
333
properties that are determined by the state of the system, regardless of how that condition was achieved
state functions
334
sign of "work done by the system on the surroudings"
-
335
the sign of "work done on the system by the surroundings"
+
336
the sign for "heat absorbed by the system from the surroundings"
+
337
the sign "heat absorbed by the surroundings from the system"
-
338
gases under atmospheric conditions but exist as liquids under compression in the can
propane and butane
339
discovered that atoms and molecules emit energy only in certain discrete quantities
max planck
340
vibrating disturbance by which energy is transmitted
wave
341
the distance between identical points on successive waves
wavelength
342
the number of waves that pass through a particular point in one second
frequency
343
vertical distance from the midline of a wave to the peak or trough
amplitude
344
proposed that visible light consists of electromagnetic waves
James Clerk Maxwell
345
the emission and transmission of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves
electromagnetic radiation
346
emitted by large antennas
long radio waves
347
the smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted in the form of electromagnetic radiation
quantum
348
electrons are ejected from the surface of certain metals exposed to light of at least a certain minimum frequency
photoelectric effect
349
certain minimum frequency
threshold frequency
350
particles of light
photons
351
either continuous or line spectra of radiation emitted by substances
emission spectra
352
the light emission only at specific wavelengths
line spectra
353
explained the spectrum of hydrogen atom
Niels Henrik David Bohr
354
study of line spectra of many elements
Johannes Robert Rydberg
355
the lowest energy state of a system
ground state or ground level
356
higher in energy than the ground state
excited state
357
emitted when the electron moves from a higher-energy state to a lower-energy state
radiant energy
358
Lyman series
Ultraviolet
359
Balmer Series
Visible and ultraviolet spectrum
360
Paschen Series
Infrared spectrum
361
Brackett Series
Infrared Spectrum
362
studied the emission spectrum of the sun and noticed certain dark lines at specific wavelengths
Josef Fraunhofer
363
said that an electron bound to the nucleus behaves like a standing wave
de Broglie
364
do not move at all that is the amplitude of the wave at these points is zero
nodes
365
what is acronym laser mean
light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
366
first known laser
Ruby laser
367
described the problem of trying to locate a subatomic particle that behaves like a wave
Werner Heisenberg
368
impossible to know simultaneously both the momentum and the position of a particle with certainty
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
369
formulated an equation that describes the behavior and energies of submicroscopic particles in general
Erwin Schrodinger
370
wave mechanics
quantum mechanics
371
specifies the possible energy states the electron can occupy in a hydrogen atom and identifies the corresponding wave functions
Schrodinger equation
372
gives the probability that an electron will be found in a particular region of an atom
electron density
373
the wave function of an electron in an atom
atomic orbital
374
atoms containing two or more electrons
many-electron atoms
375
describe the distribution of electrons in hydrogen and other atoms
quantum numbers
376
describes the behavior of a specific electron and completes the description of electrons in atoms
quantum number
377
relates to the average distance of the electron from the nucleus in a particular orbital
principal quantum number
378
tells us the shape of the orbitals
angular momentum quantum number
379
describes the orientation of the orbital in space
magnetic quantum number
380
encloses about 90 percent of the total electron density in an orbital
boundary surface diagram
381
no two electrons in an atom can have the same four quantum numbers
Pauli exclusion principle
382
attracted by a magnet
paramagnetic substances
383
if the electron spins are paired or antiparallel to each other, the magnetic effect cancel out and the atom
diamagnetic
384
the most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells is the one with the greatest number of parallel spins
Hund's Rule
385
dictates that as protons are added one by one to the nucleus to build up the elements. electrons are similarly added to the atomic orbitals
aufbau principle
386
shows in brackets the noble gas element that most nearly precedes the element being considered
noble gas core
387
have incompletely filled d subshells or readily give rise to cations that have incompletely filled d subshells
transition metals
388
most of these elements are not found in nature but have been synthesized
actinide
389
introduced the law of octaves
John Newlands
390
discovered a correlation between what he called atomic number and the frequency of X-rays generated by bombarding an element with high-energy electrons
Henry Moseley
391
the outer electrons of an atom, which are the ones involved in chemical bonding
valence electrons
392
one-half the distance between the two nuclei in two adjacent metal atoms
atomic radius
393
the radius of a cation or an anion
ionic radius
394
the minimum energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state
ionization energy
395
the energy change that occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to from an anion
electron affinity
396
similarities between pairs of elements in different groups and periods
diagonal relationships
397
charge of an ion divided by its volume
charge density
398
the inventor of discharge tube
Sir William Crookes
399
consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for each valence electron in an atom of the element
Lewis dot symbol
400
the electrostatic force that holds ions together in an ionic compound
ionic bond
401
the energy required to completely separate one mole of a solid ionic compound into gaseous ions
lattice energy
402
the potential energy between two ions is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the distance of separation between them
Coulumb's law
403
relates lattice energies of ionic compounds to ionization energies electron affinities, and other atomic and molecular properties
Born-Haber cycle
404
invented the torsion balance
Charles Augustin de Coulumb
405
pairs of valence electrons that are not involved in covalent bond formation
lone pairs
406
a representation of covalent bonding in which shared electron pairs are shown either as lines or as pairs of dots between two atoms, and lone pairs are shown as pairs of dots on individual atoms
lewis structure
407
atom other than hydrogen tends to form bonds until it is surrounded by weight valence electrons
octet rule
408
two atoms are held together by one electron pair
single bond
409
two atoms share two or more pairs of electrons
multiple bonds
410
distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms in a molecule
Bond length
411
the second type of attractive force operates between molecules
intermolecular force
412
the electrons spend more time in the vicinity of one atom than the other
polar covalent bond
413
the difference between the valence electrons in an isolated atom and the number of electrons assigned to that atom in a lewis structure
formal charge
414
one of two or more lewis structure for a single molecule that cannot be represented accurately by only one lewis structure
resonance structure
415
the use of two or more lewis structures to represent a particular molecule
resonance
416
dative bond that donates both electrons
coordinate covalent bond
417
commonly prescribed for heart patients to relieve the pain (angina pectoris) caused by a brief interference in the flow of blood to the heart
nitroglycerin tablets
418
enthalpy change required to break a particular bond in one mole of gaseous molecule
bond dissociation energy
419
three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule
molecular geometry
420
outermost electron-occupied shell of an atom; it holds the electrons that are usually involved in bonding
valence shell
421
it accounts for the geometric arrangements of electrons pairs around a central atom in terms of the electrostatic repulsion between electron pairs.
valence-shell electron-pair repulsion
422
lone pair vs. lone pair
repulsion
423
lone pair vs. bonding
pair repulsion
424
bonding pair vs. bonding pair
pair repulsion
425
the product of the charge Q and the distance r between the charges
dipole moment
426
have dipole moments
polar molecules
427
do not have dipole moments
nonpolar molecules
428
has both magnitude and direction
vector quantity
429
assumes the formation of molecular orbitals from the atomic orbitals
molecular orbital theory
430
assumes that the electrons in a molecule occupy atomic orbitals of the individual atoms
valence bond theory
431
atomic orbitals obtained when two or more nonequivalent orbitals of the same atom combine in preparation for covalent bond formation
hybrid orbitals
432
the mixing of atomic orbitals in an atom to generate a set of hybrid orbitals
hybridization
433
covalent bonds formed by orbitals overlapping end-to-end with the electron density concentrated between the nuclei of the bonding atoms
sigma bonds
434
a covalent bond formed by sideways overlapping orbitals with electron density concentrated above and below the plane of the nuclei of the bonding atoms
pi bonds
435
magnetic and other properties of molecules are sometimes better explained by another quantum mechanical approach
molecular orbital theory
436
result from interaction of the atomic orbitals of the bonding atoms and are associated with the entire molecule
molecular orbitals
437
lower energy and greater stability than the atomic orbitals from which it was formed
bonding molecular orbital
438
higher energy and lower stability than the atomic orbitals from which it was formed
antibonding molecular orbital
439
the electron density is concentrated symmetrically around a line between the two nuclei of the bonding atoms
sigma molecular orbital
440
the electron density is concentrated above and below an imagery line joining the two nuclei of the bonding atoms
pi molecular orbital
441
diatomic molecules containing atoms of the same elements
homonuclear diatomic molecules
442
not confined between two adjacent bonding atoms, but actually extend over three or more atoms
delocalized molecular orbitals
443
most symmetrical molecule known
buckminsterfullerene or buckyball
444
homogeneous part of the system in contact with other parts of the system but separated from them by a well-defined boundary
phase
445
attractive forces between molecules
intermolecular forces
446
hold atoms together in a molecule
intramolecular forces
447
separation of positive and negative charges in the atom is due to the proximity of an ion or a polar molecule
induced dipole
448
the attractive interaction between an ion and the induced dipole
ion-induced dipole interaction
449
attractive interaction between a polar molecule and the induced dipole
dipole-induced dipole interaction
450
electron cloud that is spread over an appreciable volume
diffuse cloud
451
at any instant it is likely that the atom has a dipole moment created by the specific positions of the electrons
instantaneous dipole
452
attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary dipoles induced in atoms or molecules
dispersion forces
453
amount of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area
surface tension
454
shows water rising spontaneously in a capillary tube
capillary action
455
intermolecular attraction between like molecules
cohesion
456
an attraction between unlike molecules
adhesion
457
possesses rigid and long-range order; its atoms, molecules, or ions occupy specific positions
crystalline solid
458
basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid
unit cell
459
each sphere represents an atom
lattice point
460
the number of atoms surrounding an atom in a crystal lattice
coordination number
461
basic, repeating unit in the array of spheres
simple cubic cell
462
the most efficient arrangement of spheres
closest packing
463
hexagonal close-packed structure
ABA arrangement
464
cubic close-packed structure
ABC arrangement
465
the scattering of X-rays by the units of a crystalline solid
X-ray diffraction
466
tells us the relative electron densities at various locations in a molecule
density contour map
467
lack a regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms
amorphous solids
468
rate of a forward process is exactly balanced by the rate of the reverse process
dynamic equilibrium
469
vapor pressure measured when a dynamic equilibrium exists between condensation and evaporation
equilibrium vapor pressure
470
the energy required to vaporize one mole of a liquid
molar heat of vaporization
471
the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the external pressure
boiling point
472
the highest temperature at which a substance can exist as a liquid
critical temperature
473
the minimum pressure that must be applied to bring liquefaction at the critical temp
critical pressure
474
the energy required to melt one mole of a solid
molar heat of fusion
475
liquid can be temporarily cooled to below its freezing point
supercooling
476
process in which an ion or molecule is surrounded by solvent molecules arranged in a specific manner
solvation
477
separation of a mixture of substances into pure components on the basis of their differing solubilities
fractional crystallization
478
solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the pressure of the gas over the solution
Henry's Law
479
properties that depend only on the number of solute particles in solution and not on the nature of the solute particles
colligative properties
480
have measurable vapor pressure
volatile
481
any solution that obeys raoult's law
ideal solution
482
the selective passage of solvent molecules through a porous membrane from a dilute solution to a more concentrated one
osmosis
483
allows the passage of solvent molecules but blocks the passage of solute molecules
semipermeable membrane
484
the pressure required to stop osmosis
osmotic pressure
485
when a bacterial cell is in a hypertonic sugar solution, the intracellular water tends to move out of the bacterial cell to the more concentrated solution by osmosis
crenation
486
made up of one or more cations and one or more anions held together by electrostatic forces
ion pair
487
area of chemistry concerned with the speeds, or rates, at which a chemical reaction occurs
chemical kinetics
488
the change in concentration of reactant or a product with time
reaction rate
489
a constant of proportionality between the reaction rate and the concentrations of reactants
rate constant
490
expresses the relationship of the rate of a reaction to the rate constant and the concentrations of the reactants raised to some powers
rate law
491
sum of the powers to which all reactant concentration appearing in the rate law are raised
reaction order
492
the minimum amount of energy required to initiate a chemical reaction
activation energy
493
temporary species formed by the reactant molecules are a result of the collision before they form the product
activated complex
494
a series of simple reactions that represent the progress of the overall reaction at the molecular level
elementary steps
495
sequence of elementary steps that leads to product formation
reaction mechanism
496
appear in the mechanism of the reaction but not in the overall balance equation
intermediates
497
number of molecules reacting in an elementary steps
molecularity of reaction
498
slowest step in the sequence of steps leading to product formation
rate-determining step
499
major industrial method of producing nitric acid
ostwald process
500
an enzyme acts only on certain molecules
substrates
501
the equilibrium constant for the complex ion formation
formation constant or stability constant
502
determination of the types of ions present in a solution
qualitative analysis
503
the conversion of molecular nitrogen into nitrogen compounds
nitrogen fixation
504
consists of nitrogen, oxygen, and ozone
stratosphere
505
above stratosphere
mesosphere
506
uppermost layer of the atmosphere
thermosphere or ionosphere
507
result in ejection of myriad electrons and protons into space, where they disrupt radio transmission and provide us with spectacular celestial light shows
auroras
508
formed by the reactions of automobile exhaust in the presence of sunlight
photochemical smog
509
the entropy of the universe increases in a spontaneous process and remains unchanged in an equilibrium process
second law of thermodynamics
510
the entropy of a perfect crystalline substance is zero at the absolute zero of temp
third law of themodynamics
511
spontaneous in the forward direction
delta G <0
512
reaction is nonspontaneous or spontaneous in the opposite direction
delta G > 0
513
system is equilibrium, no net change.
delta G = 0
514
the experimental apparatus for generating electricity through the use of a spontaneous redox reaction
electrochemical cell
515
sometimes referred to as galvanic cell or voltaic cell
electrochemical cell
516
particular arrangement of electrode and solutions
Daniel cell
517
construct a cell from two half-cells composed of the same material but differing in ion concentrations
concentration cell
518
an electrochemical cell, or a series of combined electrochemical cells, that can be used as a source of direct current at a constant voltage
battery
519
the most common dry cell that is used in flashlights and transistor radios
Leclanche cell
520
serves as the cathode, which is immersed in the electrolyte in the center of the cell
carbon rod
521
used extensively in medicine and electronic industries and is more expensive than the common dry cell
mercury battery
522
commonly used in automobiles consists of six identical cells joined together in series
lead storage battery
523
recharging the battery means reversing the normal electrochemical reaction by applying an external voltage at the cathode and the anode
electrolysis
524
an electrochemical cell that requires a continuous supply of reactantss to keep functioning
fuel cell
525
they serve as electrical conductors, and they provide the necessary surfaces for the initial decomposition of the molecules into atomic species, prior to electron transfer
electrocatalysts
526
the difference the electrode potential and the actual voltage required to cause electrolysis
overvoltage
527
an alloy of mercury with another metal or metals
amalgam
528
the mixture of calcium silicate and calcium aluminate that remains molten at the furnace temperature
slag
529
iron extracted in this way contains many impurities
pig iron
530
pig iron is granular and brittle. it has a relatively low melting point so it can be cast in various forms
cast iron
531
at high temp, iron and carbon in steel combine to form iron carbide
cementite
532
delocalized electrons move freely through "bands" formed by overlapping molecular orbitals
band theory
533
provide conduction electrons
donor impurities
534
solids containing donor impurities
n-type semiconductors
535
impurities that are electron deficient
acceptor impurities
536
semiconductors that contain acceptor impurities
p-type semiconductors
537
chile saltpeter
sodium nitrate
538
welding of steel and iron
thermite reaction
539
molecular hydrogen forms a number of hydrides with transition metals
interstitial hydride
540
linking of like atoms
catenation
541
the electrolysis of a concentrated aqueous NaCl solution
chlor-alkali process
542
neutral species containing one or more complex ions
coordination compound
543
the molecules or ions that surround the metal in a complex ion
ligands
544
the atom in a ligand that is bound directly to the metal atom
donor atom
545
number of donor atoms
surrounding the central atom in a complex ion
546
ability to hold metal atom like a claw
chelating agent
547
compounds that are made up of the same types and numbers of atoms bonded together in the same sequence but with different spatial arrangements
stereoisomers
548
stereoisomers that cannot be interconverted without breaking a chemical bond
geometric isomers
549
an equimolar mixture of two enantiomers
racemic mixture
550
the d and l isomers of a chiral substance
enantiomers
551
measure the rotation of polarized light by optical isomers
polarimeter
552
energy difference between two sets of d orbitals in a neutral atom when ligands are present
crystal field splitting
553
a list of ligands arranged in order of their abilities to split the d orbital energies
spectrochemical series
554
often useful to distinguish between the stability of a complex ion and its tendency to react
kinetic lability
555
undergo rapid ligand exchange reactions
labile complexes
556
a complex ion that undergoes very slow exchange reactions
inert complex
557
results from the bombardment of nuclei b y neutrons, protons, or other nuclei
nuclear transmutation
558
stable nuclei are located in an area of the graph
belt of stability
559
the energy required to break up a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons
nuclear binding energy
560
the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its protons, neutrons, and electrons
mass defect
561
sequence of nuclear reactions that ultimately result in the formation of a stable isotope
radioactive series
562
particle accelerators made it possible to synthesize
transuranium elements
563
process in which a heavy nucleus divides to form smaller nuclei of intermediate mass and one or more neutrons
nuclear fission
564
self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission reactions
nuclear chain reaction
565
the minimum mass of fissionable material required to generate a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction
critical mass
566
substances that can reduce the kinetic energy of neutrons
moderators
567
uses uranium fuel but unlike a conventional nuclear reactor, it provides more fissionable materials than it uses
breeder reactor
568
the combining of small nuclei into larger ones
nuclear fusion
569
fusion reactions take place only at very high temperatures
thermonuclear reactions
570
molecular fragments having one or more unpaired electrons; they are usually lived and highly reactive
radicals
571
a polymer made up of only one type of monomer
homopolymer
572
