Chemistry & Biochemistry 2 Flashcards

Question

Enzymes and temperature

Answer 1

High temps move faster Leads to more collisions and a faster reaction rate If atoms in enzyme vibrate too much, the weak bonds holding the 3D structure together can break and enzymes can denature Enzyme then most Fever speeds up immune reactions. Imp not to go above 40 degrees as enzymes will denature and metabolic processes will break down

Answer 2

**Saliva** Salivary amylase **Stomach** Gastric lipase Pepsinogen (to pepsin) **Pancreas** Pancreatic amalyse Pancreatic lipase Pancreatic proteases **Villi** Sucrase Maltese Lactase Modern diets mean problem often struggle to produce enough digestive enzymes Constantly eating tires enzyme production Drinking water diluted Stress and nutritional deficiencies can reduce enzymes

Answer 3

Plants contain enzymes Bromelain = pineapple (protease) Papain = in papaya (protease) Tolerate wider pan range Bromelain remains in tact in stomach Denatured by high heat and microwave Foods high in enzymes Sprouts (100x more than fruit and veg) Kiwi = actinidin (aids protein) Avocado = lipase (fats) Garlic = phytonutrient allin, enzyme alinase Cooking can be damaging Longer exposure to best, greater the loss Enzymes that remain in damaged can support digestion, assisting with breakdown of macronutrients and reducing digestive burden

Answer 4

Contain micronutrient Cooking often lowers antioxidant Water soluble compounds can be lost Some compounds are more available when cooked as released from plant Walls: Lycopene Beta carotene SIBo and raw food not good match Brassica (goitrogenic food) is not good for thyroid issues in raw food. Hearing denatured Yin conditions may be caused by excessive raw foods

Answer 5

COX (cyclooxygenase-1 & 2) and LOX (lipoxygenase-5) are enzymes involved in creation of key inflam mediators called prostaglandins and leukotrienes Boswella, curculio and ginger inhibits these

Answer 6

Decrease rate of biological reaction Antibiotics (penicillin) works by inactivating enzyme necessary for connection of aa in bacterial cell walls which is important for their structure Statins inhibit HMG-CoA reductase - enzyme liver used to make cholesterol and CoQ10

Answer 7

Systemic enzyme therapy: taking large dose of proteolytic enzymes on an empty stomach so that some of the enzymes are able to reach the bloodstream in tact Proteases thought to reduce inflam processes and aid in more efficient clearance of damaged tissue Commonly used enzymes Bromelain, serrapeptase and pancreatic enzymes Bromelain properties: Anti inflam Anti cancer Anti clotting

Answer 8

Proteolytic enzyme that has potent anti inflam effects on body tissues Thought to reduce inflam by: Thinning fluids formed from injury, facilitating fluid damage Inhibiting release of pain mediating chemicals Enhances cardiovascular health by breaking down the protein by product of blood coagulation called fibrin therefore can dissolve blood clots and artherosclorosis plaques Reduces pain and swelling without inhibiting prostaglandins and has no GI effect (like NSAIDs) Alleviates pain by inhibiting release of bradykinin from inflamed tissue Therapeutic uses: Inflam mediated pain; scar tissue, endometriosis, AI, excess music, resistant bacterial infections

Answer 9

Energy currency of the body Body has to synthesise it before can spend it ATP used to capture the energy released by reactions in the body such as burning glucose (ATP is how the body traps energy from these reactions in a way the body can use it) Nucleotide with 3 phosphate groups. Important as the bonds between the phosphate groups contain lots of energy When water added to ATP, 1 phosphate group is removed releasing energy via hydrolysis action.

Answer 10

ATP always present as magnesium-ATP complex Magnesium binds to phosphate groups in ATP, holding molecule in slightly curved / strained shape that aids the loss of phosphates, facilitating energy release Without Mg, ATP isn’t biologically active as it’s difficult to release the energy from between the phosphate groups Hence low energy is a symptom of Mg insufficiency

Answer 11

Capture energy from oxidation reactions Drive body reactions (eg building proteins) Fuel movement Transport substances across membranes (active transport) Cell division

Answer 12

Energy not always released in ATP sized packages At certain points, energy has to use energy carriers to temporarily capture the energy released Concerts trapped energy into ATP molecules later Main intermediate energy carriers are derived from B vits

Answer 13

NAD Made from B3 (niacin) or from aa tryptophan and aspartic acid When traps energy, becomes NADH FAD Made from B2 (riboflavin) When traps energy, becomes FADH2 NAD or FAD sweep in and steal electrons and a H from glucose (or fats) Trap energy temporarily Hence adequate intake levels of B VIT for optimum energy levels

Answer 14

Carbs broken down into glucose via digestive process Glucose than then be oxidised to form ATP (chemically burned inside the body) Process known as cellular respiration and involves 4 steps: 1. Glycolysis (or anerobic cellular respiration) in cytosol 2. Formation of acetyl CoA 3. Kerbs cycle 4. Electron transport chain

Answer 15

Need magnesium and b3 In cytoplasm Through 10 steps in glycolysis, glucose is transformed into 2 molecules of a substrate called pyruvate Through this splitting of glucose, some energy is released but 2 are (ATP) used up Glucose contains 6 carbon atoms, whilst pyruvate contains 3 = 2x 3 carbon structure Energy is directly released and trapped as 4 ATP and 2 NADH. There is a net gain of 2 ATP and 2 NADH Glycolysis can occur with or without O2 When O2 available, NADH can be recycled in electron transport chain and turned into ATP When not available, cannot be recycled In order to allow energy production to continue, NADH reacts with pyruvate to keep glycolysis going, turning into lactic acid Ideally only used for short bursts of activity, but pollution, stress, lack of exercise, smoking and obesity can create chronically hypoxic individuals

Answer 16

Needs B1, B5 and lipoid acid In mitochondrial matrix If O2 plentiful, pyruvate will enter the mitochondria and be converted into acetyl CoA ready to enter the Kreb’s cycle. Allows us to get more energy out of glucose Pyruvate will react with B5 carrier molecule, which then allows it to enter the mitochondria B1 and lipoic acid enable pyruvate to lose 1 of its 3 carbon atoms (hence acetyl CoA had 2 carbons) 2 more packets of energy are trapped as NADH Coenzyme A is naturally synthesised from B5

Answer 17

Needs magnesium, manganese, iron, B1, B2 & B3 Occurs in mitochondrial matrix Series of reactions where acetyl CoA is modified by enzymes. Energy is released or trapped Also known as citric acid cycle (refers to first molecule forms during cycles reaction) Acetyl CoA enters the kreb cycle. For each glucose, enough energy is released to make: 2 x ATP 6 x NADH 2 x FADH Many enzymes can be blocked by heavy metals such as aluminium and mercury

Answer 18

Needs iron, sulphur, CoQ10, copper ions In inter folds of mitochondria Final step allows energy to be trapped in NADH and FADH2 to be formed into ATP with the help of 4 enzyme complexes which are embedded in the inner folds of the mitochondria O2 essential for this step to occur A hypoxic environment will reduce their ability to produce ATP Without O2, NAD and FAD cannot be recycled Each of 4 enzyme complexes in the electron transport chain requires certain nutrients as cofactors: Complex 1: iron and sulphur Complex 2: CoQ10 Complex 3: iron Complex 4: copper ions

Answer 19

Key component of electron transport chain and stored in mitochondria Depleted by statin use (acts on pathway shared by cholesterol & CoQ10 synthesis in liver) Antioxidant properties and helps recycle other antioxidants such as VIT C & E Reduces free radical damage Slows down aging changes and inhibits atrial LDL oxidisation Sources: near, poultry, nuts, sesame seeds, broccoli

Answer 20

Can occur by: Free radicals Medical drugs and alcohol Environmental toxins Damage may compromise electron transport chain, without generating energy Poor functioning linked to Fibromyalgia Type 2 diabetes Chronic fatigue syndrome Pathogenisis of cancer To support: Reduce toxic load Increase nutrient cofactors Increase production of glutathione and glutathione perioxodase (sulphur and selenium rich foods) Add mitochondrial antioxidants including CoQ10 Support detox and elimination process Ginseng, rhodiola, Rosemary, curcumin

Answer 21

In a sense of carbs, fats can be used Lipase split triglycerides from adipose tissue into fatty acids and glycerol Beta- oxidation: Fatty acids transported to liver, where body uses process called beta - oxidation to convert them to molecules of acetyl CoA Can then enter the krebs cycle just like carbs Fats yield a lot more energy than carbs. So whilst burning carbs is easier, fats are more efficient

Answer 22

Needs to combine with co-enzyme A (from B5) Process required ATP and Mg A carnitine- dependent enzyme is then needed to ferry the fatty acid into the mitochondria L-carnitine is therefore required to transport fatty acids into mitochondria (Often found in weight loss formulas to help fatty acids to enter mitochondria and burn for energy)

Answer 23

Aim of beta- oxidisation is to gradually chop the fatty acid chain into a style CoA ready to go into Krebs cycle Occurs in mitochondria Requires B2, B3 and sulphur - produces energy Process repeats until entire fatty acid chain is broken down into acetyl CoA units which can then enter the Krebs cycle Amount of energy produced depends on length of fatty acid chain

Answer 24

Brain can’t use fatty acids for energy Gets energy from ketone bodies when sufficient glucose is not available Mitochondria of liver cells can convert acetylene CoA into ketone bodies: Acetone Acetoacetic acid B-hydroxybutyrate These can cross BBB and used as source of energy Ketone bodies can also be formed when protein is used for energy

Answer 25

Ketogenesis: production of ketones Ketosis: body state of forming ketones Ketosis can occur during high fat and low carb diets whilst fasting State is highly beneficial for the most Ketosis is never harmful from diet alone (some pathological states ketone bodies form in excessively high quantities, creates a state of keroacidosis: can occur in diabetes mellitis and alcoholism) If both acetoacetic acid and beta-hydroxybutyraye are high, both acidic and will drop blood pH Smelt on persons breath = acetone like nail varnish Being in ketosis has been shown to benefit in certain disease states: Epilepsy (controls seizures) Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s = enhances mitochondrial function Cancer: normal cells can adapt using ketones, cancer cells can’t

Answer 26

Presents body from expensing excess amounts of energy digesting food Instead, focus on healing and regenerating

Answer 27

B3 and B6 important cofactors Carbon parts of aa can be broken down to generate ATP or can be used to make gluconeogenesis (making glucose) Degeneration of aa in idea loss of nitrogen Must lose NH2 amine group first before entering Krebs cycle Results in creation of ammonia (NH3). most then converted to urea in urea cycle

Answer 28

Formation of new glucose from other non carb sources. Eg: Lactic acid Glycerol Some aa Pyruvate Takes place in liver, and lesser extend kidneys during period of fasting, starving or intense exercise Biotin is important co-factor for gluconeogenesis

Answer 29

Major sources of energy for the body are: Glucose Fatty acids Ketone bodies Aa Adults in their fed state will obtain energy roughly: 47% carbs 38% fat 15% protein In fasting state; body will source its energy from glycogen then fat then available protein

Chemistry & Biochemistry 2 Flashcards

(53 cards)