classification and evolution Flashcards
1
Q
What is taxonomy?
A
Taxonomy is the practice of biological classification—grouping organisms based on their evolutionary origins and relationships.
2
Q
Why is biological classification useful?
A
It helps organise species into groups, making them easier to study, understand, and remember.
3
Q
What is a taxon?
A
A taxon (plural: taxa) is a group within the classification system that contains organisms with shared characteristics. There is no overlap between different taxa.
4
Q
What is hierarchical classification?
A
A system that groups organisms into ranked levels or taxa based on their similarities, with each higher rank containing more organisms with fewer similarities.
5
Q
What are the ranks in the taxonomic hierarchy (from highest to lowest)?
A
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species.
6
Q
What is the relationship between ranks in the classification hierarchy?
A
Higher ranks (e.g., Domain, Kingdom) include more organisms that are less similar, while lower ranks (e.g., Genus, Species) include fewer organisms that are more similar.
7
Q
What is the lowest rank in the taxonomic hierarchy?
A
Species.
8
Q
What is the highest rank in the taxonomic hierarchy?
A
Domain.
9
Q
What do binomial names of species consist of?
A
A binomial name includes the genus (capitalised) and species (lowercase), e.g., Homo sapiens.
10
Q
Why are binomial names useful?
A
They provide a universal scientific name for each species, avoiding confusion caused by different common names in different languages or regions.
11
Q
What are the rules for writing binomial names?
A
They must be italicised or underlined if handwritten. The genus name starts with a capital letter, the species name does not.
12
Q
Who developed the binomial system?
A
Carl Linnaeus in the 18th century.
13
Q
What are the three domains of life?
A
Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.
14
Q
What distinguishes the three domains of life?
A
Cell type—Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotic (no nucleus), while Eukarya are eukaryotic (have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles).
15
Q
What are the key features of Eukarya?
A
Eukaryotic cells with nuclei and organelles, can reproduce sexually or asexually, divide by mitosis, and vary widely in size.
16
Q
How did scientists realise prokaryotes were not one uniform group?
A
Through molecular studies of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), protein synthesis, and cell structure, scientists found significant differences between Bacteria and Archaea.
17
Q
What kind of environments were Archaea first discovered in?
A
Extreme environments, such as very salty or hot conditions (e.g., the Dead Sea).
18
Q
What are the key features of Archaea?
A
Prokaryotic cells without peptidoglycan in cell walls, unique membrane lipids, ribosomes similar to eukaryotes, and DNA transcription similar to eukaryotes.
19
Q
What are the key features of Bacteria?
A
Prokaryotic cells with peptidoglycan in cell walls, divide by binary fission, vary in size, and do not have nuclei.
20
Q
What are the key differences between Bacteria and Archaea?
A
Cell membrane structure, internal structure of flagella, type of RNA polymerase enzymes, presence of proteins bound to DNA, mechanisms for DNA replication and RNA synthesis.
21
Q
What kind of enzymes do Bacteria and Archaea use to make RNA?
A
Bacteria have different RNA polymerase enzymes, while Archaea use RNA polymerase more similar to that in Eukaryotes.
22
Q
Do Bacteria have proteins bound to their genetic material?
A
No, Bacteria do not have proteins (like histones) bound to their DNA.
23
Q
Do Archaea have proteins bound to their genetic material?
A
Yes, some Archaea have proteins that bind to DNA, similar to histones in eukaryotic cells.
24
Q
Which group is more similar to Eukaryotae: Bacteria or Archaea?
A
Archaea are more similar to Eukaryotae than Bacteria are.
25
What features do Archaea and Eukaryotes share?
Similar RNA polymerase enzymes, similar mechanisms for DNA replication and transcription, production of proteins that bind to DNA (like histones).
26
Why are ribosomal RNA genes useful in classification?
They evolve slowly and are present in all living organisms, making them ideal for tracing deep evolutionary relationships.
27
What were the original five kingdoms at the top of the classification hierarchy before the three-domain system?
Prokaryota, Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.
28
What domain does the kingdom Prokaryota fall under?
Prokaryota is not part of the domain Eukarya and includes organisms with prokaryotic cells.
29
What kinds of organisms are found in the kingdom Prokaryota?
Bacteria and blue-green bacteria (cyanobacteria).
30
What are the main features of organisms in the kingdom Prokaryota?
Most are unicellular, have cell walls (not made of cellulose), no nucleus or mitochondria, divide by binary fission, and vary greatly in size.
31
How do prokaryotic cells differ from viruses and eukaryotic cells in size?
The smallest prokaryotes are larger than viruses, while the largest are smaller than the smallest single-celled eukaryotes.
32
How do blue-green bacteria and some bacteria obtain energy?
They are autotrophic and perform photosynthesis.
33
How do many bacteria in the kingdom Prokaryota feed?
They are heterotrophic and decompose living or dead organic matter.
34
Which domain includes the other four kingdoms: Protoctista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia?
Eukarya.
35
What is the key feature that all members of the domain Eukarya share?
They have eukaryotic cells with membrane-bound nuclei and other organelles.
36
What defines organisms in the kingdom Protoctista?
They are eukaryotic and include all eukaryotic organisms not classified in the other three eukaryotic kingdoms.
37
What makes Protoctista a diverse kingdom?
They vary in structure, life cycle, feeding methods, trophic levels, and modes of movement.
38
Are protoctists unicellular or multicellular?
They can be unicellular or groups of similar cells.
39
What are protozoa in the kingdom Protoctista?
Protozoa are protoctists with animal-like cells that lack cell walls.
40
What are algae in the kingdom Protoctista?
Algae are protoctists with plant-like cells that have cellulose cell walls and chloroplasts.
41
What is a defining feature of fungi in terms of cell type?
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms.
42
What is the composition of fungal cell walls?
Fungal cell walls are made of chitin, not cellulose.
43
Do fungal cells have cilia?
No, fungi do not have cilia.
44
How do fungi obtain energy?
Fungi are heterotrophs that digest dead/decaying material extracellularly or live as parasites.
45
How do fungi reproduce?
Fungi reproduce using spores that disperse into the environment.
46
What are hyphae and mycelium in fungi?
Hyphae are long threads of cells that form a network called the mycelium, the main body of many fungi.
47
What are fruiting bodies in fungi?
Fruiting bodies are structures that produce and release spores in many fungi.
48
What are the main features of organisms in the kingdom Plantae?
Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with cellulose cell walls, large permanent vacuoles, and chloroplasts (not in all cells).
49
How do plants support their structure?
With large permanent vacuoles and cellulose cell walls.
50
How do plant cells gain energy?
Plants are autotrophs and use photosynthesis to synthesize organic compounds from inorganic materials.
51
Can plant cells differentiate?
Yes, plant cells can become specialized to form tissues and organs.
52
Do plant cells ever have flagella?
Some plant cells can have flagella.
53
Describe the body form of plants.
Plants have complex body forms with branching systems above and below ground.
54
What are the defining characteristics of organisms in the kingdom Animalia?
Animals are multicellular eukaryotes that can differentiate into specialized cells, have no cell walls, and communicate via nervous systems.
55
What kind of vacuoles do animal cells have?
They have small, temporary vacuoles such as lysosomes.
56
Do animal cells have cell walls?
No, animal cells lack cell walls.
57
How do animals feed?
Animals are heterotrophs with a wide range of feeding strategies.
58
How do animals communicate internally?
Through a nervous system and chemical signalling.
59
How did classification change with the use of phylogeny?
Organisms are now classified based on their evolutionary history rather than just visible features.
60
What is phylogeny?
Phylogeny is the evolutionary history and relationships of organisms.
61
How are organisms grouped in phylogenetic classification?
Species with a recent common ancestor are grouped together; those with distant ancestors are separated.
62
Why might historical groupings be changed by phylogenetic classification?
Organisms grouped by visible traits (e.g. birds and bats) may not be closely related evolutionarily.
63
What technological advances improved phylogenetic classification?
Advances in DNA, RNA, and protein sequencing have allowed for more accurate classification.
64
What kind of diagrams are used to represent evolutionary relationships?
Phylogenetic trees.
65
What types of sequence data are used in molecular classification?
DNA sequences, mRNA sequences, and amino acid sequences from proteins.
66
What does sequencing technology allow scientists to do?
Determine the exact order of DNA bases, mRNA bases, or amino acids in a protein.
67
Why might scientists compare specific proteins or genome regions?
To get more accurate estimates of evolutionary relatedness between species.
68
What makes cytochrome c useful for classification?
It's used in respiration by all eukaryotes and shows variation between species.
69
What does similarity in sequence data indicate about two species?
The more similar the sequences, the more closely related the species are.
70
What does a greater difference in sequence data indicate?
That the species separated longer ago and have had more time to accumulate mutations.
71
What can sequence comparisons be used to build?
Phylogenetic trees showing evolutionary relationships.
72
How is DNA collected for sequence comparison?
It is extracted from the nucleus of cells, from living organisms or fossils.
73
What happens after DNA is extracted for classification purposes?
The DNA is analysed and the base sequence is compared to other organisms.
74
What does a high similarity in DNA base sequences between species indicate?
A closer evolutionary relationship and more recent separation into different species.
75
What did scientists discover in 2005 when sequencing the chimpanzee genome?
Humans and chimpanzees share almost 99% of their DNA, making chimps our closest living relatives.
76
Why might scientists use amino acid sequences instead of DNA or mRNA?
It can be easier to find and isolate proteins from cells, especially before DNA sequencing technology became common.
77
Why can amino acid sequences be identical between different species even when DNA is different?
Because of differences in introns and the degeneracy of the genetic code (more than one codon can code for the same amino acid).
78
Why is DNA sequencing now preferred over protein sequencing for classification?
It provides more detailed information and accounts for silent mutations that don't change amino acid sequences.
79
What does the term 'evolution' refer to?
Evolution refers to how species change over time and continue to evolve.
80
What is the theory of evolution by natural selection?
The theory of evolution by natural selection explains the process through which evolution occurs, where organisms with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.
81
Who contributed to the theory of evolution by natural selection?
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace contributed significantly to developing the theory of evolution by natural selection.
82
What were Charles Darwin's key observations?
Darwin observed that organisms produce more offspring than can survive, populations fluctuate, there is variation within species, and offspring inherit traits from their parents.
83
What are two key sources of evidence for evolution by natural selection?
Fossil evidence and molecular evidence (DNA analysis) are key sources of evidence supporting evolution by natural selection.
84
What are fossils?
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of organisms, such as footprints, and provide evidence of evolutionary changes over millions of years.
85
How do scientists date fossils?
Fossils are dated by examining the rocks they are found in, which helps sequence organisms from oldest to youngest and track evolutionary changes.
86
What do fossils show about extinct species?
Fossils show similarities between extinct species and present-day species, demonstrating how species have evolved over time.
87
How does molecular evidence support evolution?
DNA sequencing shows genetic relationships between species, and the more similar the DNA, the more closely related the species are.
88
What is a phylogenetic tree?
A phylogenetic tree is a diagram that shows the evolutionary relationships between species, created using DNA sequence analysis.
89
What is variation in biology?
Variation refers to the differences between living organisms, which can occur within a species or between different species.
90
What is interspecific variation?
Interspecific variation refers to differences between individuals of different species, helping to classify organisms.
91
What is intraspecific variation?
Intraspecific variation refers to differences within the same species, which are smaller than interspecific differences and allow for natural selection.
92
What is discontinuous variation?
Discontinuous variation refers to differences that fall into distinct categories, such as blood type, with no intermediates.
93
What is continuous variation?
Continuous variation refers to differences that show a range of values, like height or body mass, and can be represented by a bell-shaped curve.
94
What causes variation in organisms?
Variation can be caused by genetic factors, environmental factors, or a combination of both.
95
How does genetics affect discontinuous variation?
Discontinuous variation is caused by genetic factors, where different alleles at a gene locus significantly affect the phenotype.
96
What is the relationship between phenotype and genotype?
The phenotype is the observable traits of an organism, which are determined by its genotype (genetic makeup).
97
How does genetics and the environment affect continuous variation?
Continuous variation is caused by both genetic factors and environmental factors, with multiple genes contributing to the phenotype.
98
What are polygenes?
Polygenes are multiple genes that have a combined effect on a phenotype, contributing to continuous variation.
99
How do environmental factors contribute to variation?
Environmental factors like light, nutrients, and temperature can affect the growth and development of organisms, causing phenotypic variation.
100
Can environmental variation be inherited?
Environmental variation cannot be inherited because it is not related to genetic changes in gametes.
101
What are examples of environmental variation?
Examples include scarring from an accident, weight gain due to diet and lifestyle, and speaking a particular language with an accent based on location.
102
What happens if there are outliers in the data?
Outliers can make the mean too high or too low, which affects the accuracy of the representation of the data.
103
What is the symbol used for the mean in calculations?
The mean is often represented as X̄ (X-bar).
104
What does the standard deviation measure?
Standard deviation measures the spread or variability of data around the mean.
105
Why is the standard deviation useful?
It helps compare the consistency between different data sets.
106
What must be calculated before determining the standard deviation?
The mean must be calculated first.
107
How do you calculate the mean of a data set?
Add all the values together and divide by the number of values in the data set.
108
What is the first step in calculating standard deviation?
Calculate the mean of the data set.
109
What is the second step in calculating standard deviation?
Find the difference between each value and the mean.
110
What is the third step in calculating standard deviation?
Square each of the differences from the mean.
111
What is the fourth step in calculating standard deviation?
Total the squared differences.
112
What is the fifth step in calculating standard deviation?
Divide the total of squared differences by (n-1), where n is the number of data points.
113
What is the final step in calculating standard deviation?
Take the square root of the value obtained in the fifth step.
114
What statistical test can be used to compare the means of two data sets?
The t-test can be used to determine if there is a significant difference between the means of two data sets.
115
What assumptions must be met for a t-test to be valid?
The data must follow a rough normal distribution, be continuous, and have approximately equal standard deviations.
116
What is the null hypothesis in a t-test?
The null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference between the two means, and any differences are due to chance.
117
What does it mean to reject the null hypothesis in a t-test?
If the t-test shows a statistically significant difference, the null hypothesis is rejected, meaning the difference is not due to chance.
118
What is the first step in performing a t-test?
Calculate the mean of each data set.
119
What is the second step in performing a t-test?
Calculate the standard deviation for each data set.
120
What is the third step in performing a t-test?
Square the standard deviations and divide by the number of observations in each sample.
121
What is the fourth step in performing a t-test?
Add the squared standard deviations for each sample, then take the square root of the sum.
122
What is the fifth step in performing a t-test?
Divide the difference between the two means by the square root of the summed squared standard deviations to get the t value.
123
What is the sixth step in performing a t-test?
Calculate the degrees of freedom (v) using the formula v = (n1 - 1) + (n2 - 1).
124
What does the degrees of freedom (v) refer to in a t-test?
The degrees of freedom is the total number of observations minus the number of groups.
125
What is the seventh step in performing a t-test?
Use a t-value table to determine where the calculated t value lies in relation to the critical values.
126
What does it mean if the t-value is greater than the critical value?
If the t-value is greater than the critical value, the difference between the data sets is statistically significant, and the null hypothesis can be rejected.
127
What does it mean if the t-value is less than the critical value?
If the t-value is less than the critical value, the difference between the data sets is not statistically significant, and the null hypothesis is accepted.
128
What does Spearman's rank correlation determine?
Spearman's rank correlation determines whether there is a correlation between variables that do not follow a normal distribution.
129
What is the first step in performing Spearman's rank correlation?
Create a scatter graph and identify possible linear correlation.
130
What is the second step in performing Spearman's rank correlation?
State a null hypothesis.
131
What is the equation used to calculate Spearman's rank correlation coefficient (rs)?
rs = 1 - (6∑D²) / (n(n² - 1)), where D is the difference in ranks and n is the number of samples.
132
What is the purpose of referring to a table of critical values in Spearman's rank correlation?
To compare the calculated rs value with the critical value for the number of samples at the 0.05 probability level and determine whether the null hypothesis can be rejected.
133
What does it mean if the calculated rs value is greater than the critical value at the 0.05 probability level?
It means the null hypothesis can be rejected, and there is a correlation between the two variables.
134
What was the null hypothesis in the example about plant species C and D?
The null hypothesis was that there is no correlation between the abundance of species C and species D.
135
What does 'n' represent in Spearman's rank correlation?
'n' represents the number of samples.
136
What is the first step in the example calculation for Spearman's rank correlation?
Rank each set of data, with rank 1 being the smallest data value.
137
What is the second step in the example calculation for Spearman's rank correlation?
Find the difference in rank between the two species (D).
138
What is the third step in the example calculation for Spearman's rank correlation?
Square the difference in rank (D²).
139
What does it mean if the calculated rs value is greater than the critical value of 0.65?
It means the null hypothesis can be rejected, indicating a genuine positive correlation between the variables.
140
What is an adaptation in biology?
An adaptation is a characteristic that helps an organism survive in its environment.
141
What are the three main types of adaptations?
The three main types of adaptations are anatomical, physiological, and behavioural.
142
What is an anatomical adaptation?
An anatomical adaptation is a physical feature of an organism, such as the white fur of a polar bear providing camouflage in the snow.
143
What is a physiological adaptation?
A physiological adaptation is a biological process within an organism, such as mosquitoes producing chemicals to stop a host's blood from clotting when they bite.
144
What is a behavioural adaptation?
A behavioural adaptation is the way an organism behaves, such as reptiles basking in the sun to absorb heat.
145
What is convergent evolution?
Convergent evolution is when organisms from different taxonomic groups develop similar adaptations due to living in similar environments with the same selection pressures.
146
How does convergent evolution occur?
Convergent evolution occurs when two species living in different parts of the world with similar environments face the same selection pressures, leading to similar advantageous characteristics that become widespread in both populations over time.
147
What is the result of convergent evolution?
The result is shared adaptations between unrelated organisms due to natural selection.
148
Why is it important to understand the differences between anatomical, physiological, and behavioural adaptations?
It is important for identifying and comparing adaptations in organisms, which may come up in exam questions.
149
What is genetic variation?
Genetic variation refers to the differences in DNA base sequences between individuals within a species population.
150
Why is genetic variation important for natural selection?
Genetic variation is essential for natural selection to occur because it provides the differences in alleles and phenotypes that selection pressures can act upon.
151
How is genetic variation passed on?
Genetic variation is passed on from one generation to the next, contributing to genetic diversity within a species.
152
What is the result of genetic diversity within a species?
Genetic diversity within a species allows for better adaptation to changing environments and contributes to survival and reproduction.
153
What is the significance of having a higher fitness?
A higher fitness means an individual has a greater ability to survive and reproduce, passing on its advantageous traits to the next generation.
154
What makes an organism fit in its environment?
An organism is considered fit when it has adaptations that improve its chances of survival and reproduction in a specific environment.
155
What is the consequence of a small gene pool in a population?
A small gene pool reduces a population's ability to adapt to environmental changes and increases vulnerability to extinction.
156
What are environmental factors in natural selection?
Environmental factors, such as food availability, climate, and predators, act as selection pressures that affect an organism's chances of survival and reproduction.
157
What happens in a population without environmental checks?
Without environmental checks, such as limited resources or predators, a population can experience exponential growth, where all offspring survive and reproduce.
158
What is an example of exponential population growth?
The introduction of 24 European rabbits into Australia in the 1800s led to rapid population growth due to abundant resources and no natural predators, resulting in a major pest problem.
159
What causes natural selection?
Natural selection occurs through random mutations that create new alleles, which may increase an individual's survival and reproductive success in certain environmental conditions.
160
How does a mutation affect a population?
A mutation can create a new allele, and if the new allele provides a survival advantage, it will increase in frequency in the population over generations.
161
What is an example of natural selection in rabbits?
In rabbit populations, brown fur is dominant, while white fur is recessive. Predators like foxes act as a selection pressure, favoring brown fur rabbits because they are better camouflaged.
162
Why do rabbits with brown fur have a survival advantage?
Brown-furred rabbits are better camouflaged from predators, increasing their chances of survival and reproduction compared to white-furred rabbits.
163
How does natural selection affect the allele frequency in a population of rabbits?
Over many generations, the frequency of the allele for brown fur increases, while the allele for white fur decreases, as brown-furred rabbits are more likely to survive and reproduce.
164
What is the role of selection pressures in natural selection?
Selection pressures, like predators, climate, or food availability, increase the chances of individuals with advantageous phenotypes surviving and reproducing, leading to changes in allele frequencies.
165
How do mutations lead to changes in a population over time?
Mutations can introduce new alleles that provide survival advantages. Over generations, individuals with these advantageous traits are more likely to survive and pass on their alleles, causing the traits to become more common in the population.
166
What happens when a population is isolated?
If a population is isolated and genetic differences accumulate, it can lead to the formation of a new species through natural selection.
167
What is the general principle of natural selection?
In natural selection, variation exists within a species, and individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their genes, causing those traits to become more common in the population over time.
168
What should you remember when answering questions on natural selection?
Understand the general principles of natural selection and be able to apply them to different examples, focusing on variation, survival advantages, and how traits are passed on through generations.
169
What are antibiotics?
Antibiotics are chemical substances that inhibit or kill bacterial cells with little or no harm to human tissue.
170
What is the aim of antibiotic use?
The aim of antibiotic use is to aid the body's immune system in fighting a bacterial infection.
171
Who discovered penicillin?
Penicillin was discovered in 1928 by Sir Alexander Fleming.
172
What is antibiotic resistance?
Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria evolve to survive exposure to antibiotics that would normally kill them or inhibit their growth.
173
How do mutations contribute to antibiotic resistance?
Mutations in bacteria can cause some to become resistant to antibiotics, allowing them to survive and reproduce.
174
How is antibiotic resistance passed on in bacteria?
Antibiotic resistance can be passed on through vertical transmission (from parent to offspring) or horizontal transmission (between bacteria via plasmids).
175
What is vertical transmission in bacteria?
Vertical transmission occurs when bacteria reproduce asexually, passing on antibiotic-resistant genes to their offspring.
176
How quickly do bacteria reproduce?
Bacteria reproduce rapidly, on average every 20 minutes.
177
What is horizontal transmission in bacteria?
Horizontal transmission involves the transfer of antibiotic-resistant genes between bacteria, often via plasmids.
178
What are plasmids in bacteria?
Plasmids are small rings of DNA in bacteria that can carry antibiotic-resistant genes.
179
How do bacteria acquire antibiotic resistance through horizontal transmission?
Bacteria can exchange DNA, including antibiotic-resistant genes, through conjugation, allowing them to acquire resistance from other bacteria.
180
What is MRSA?
MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is a strain of Staphylococcus aureus that is resistant to methicillin and other antibiotics.
181
What is the role of natural selection in antibiotic resistance?
Natural selection allows antibiotic-resistant bacteria to survive and reproduce, passing on resistance genes to future generations.
182
What is the impact of overuse of antibiotics?
Overuse of antibiotics contributes to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which are harder to treat.
183
Why are antibiotics sometimes misused?
Antibiotics are misused when they are prescribed for non-serious infections, when patients don't finish their prescribed course, or when they are used in agriculture to prevent disease.
184
How do antibiotic-resistant bacteria spread?
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can spread through vertical or horizontal transmission, potentially between different species of bacteria.
185
What is the relationship between pesticide use and resistance?
Similar to antibiotics in bacteria, insecticides act as selective agents, causing insect populations to evolve resistance.
186
What are the main types of pesticides?
The main types of pesticides are insecticides (kill insects), herbicides (kill plants), fungicides (kill fungi), molluscicides (kill mollusks), and rodenticides (kill rodents).
187
What is the role of selective agents in pesticide resistance?
Selective agents, such as insecticides, influence the survival of certain pests, causing the evolution of pesticide-resistant populations.
188
How do insects acquire resistance to pesticides?
Insects with mutations that make them resistant to pesticides survive and reproduce, passing on resistance genes to future generations.
189
How can the spread of pesticide resistance be prevented?
The spread of pesticide resistance can be prevented by rotating pesticides, using a combination of pesticides, and employing alternative pest control methods.
190
What is biological control?
Biological control involves introducing natural predators or parasites to control pest insect populations.
191
What is the role of genetic modification in pest control?
Genetically modified crops can be made resistant to pests, reducing the need for chemical pesticides.
192
What are narrow-spectrum antibiotics?
Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are those that target specific types of bacteria, reducing the chances of resistance developing.
193
Why is completing a course of antibiotics important?
Completing a course of antibiotics ensures all bacteria are killed, reducing the chance of resistant bacteria surviving and multiplying.
194
What is the impact of using antibiotics for viral infections?
Using antibiotics for viral infections is ineffective and contributes to the development of antibiotic resistance.
195
What is the role of good hygiene in controlling antibiotic resistance?
Good hygiene practices, such as handwashing and using hand sanitizers, help reduce the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, like MRSA.
196
How can the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria be limited in hospitals?
Isolating infected patients and practicing strict hygiene can limit the spread of resistant bacteria, especially in surgical wards.
197
What is the role of rotating antibiotics?
Rotating antibiotics reduces the chances of bacteria developing resistance to a single antibiotic by preventing continuous use of the same drug.
198
How can pesticide resistance be managed in agriculture?
Pesticide resistance can be managed by using pesticides sparingly, rotating them, and using integrated pest management strategies.
199
What is the relationship between the overuse of antibiotics in farming and resistance?
The overuse of antibiotics in farming, often to prevent disease in livestock, contributes to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
200
Why is there a race to find new antibiotics?
There is a race to find new antibiotics because bacteria continue to evolve resistance to existing drugs, making infections harder to treat.
201
What is the effect of antibiotic resistance on future medicine?
Antibiotic resistance may impact the effectiveness of treatments, making it challenging to manage bacterial infections.
202
What is the relationship between the overuse of antibiotics in farming and resistance?
The overuse of antibiotics in farming contributes to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
203
Why is there a race to find new antibiotics?
There is a race to find new antibiotics because bacteria continue to evolve resistance to existing drugs.
204
What is the effect of antibiotic resistance on future medicine?
Antibiotic resistance may make many bacterial infections untreatable with current medicines.
