Classification & Identification

Question 1

Socratic method (3,3)

Answer 1

Socrates begins with the claims made by the other person

Examines the implications of those claims by cross examining the other person (method now used in legal system)

Attempts to show how claims lead to a conclusion that is either a(n):

1. Absurdity
2. Contradiction
3. Dilemma

If claim shows one or more of these inconsistencies, then it is most likely false

• Implies person doesn’t know what they claim to know, therefore they are unwise

Question 2

Strengths of Socratic method (4)

Answer 2

• In a political sense, it holds the leaders accountable and champions true democracy
• Talks against other people’s claims (you’re the one claiming this, I’m just examining)
• Using patterns of reasoning that people already used (esp. those in the court/ in governance)
• Using the strength of your opponent against them (Sun Tzu, Art of war)

Question 3

Mystical Inspiration

Answer 3

Fully formed idea(s) supposedly from an external intelligent, potentially spiritual source, transmitted suddenly in a non-verbal non-sensory manner to another who passively receives it and is normally emotionally engaged with its source and/or subject matter and who experiences a feeling of certainty and/or excitement

Question 4

Argument by analogy (1,1)

Answer 4

The argument that if two things are alike in some respects, they are probably alike in other respects.

- More similar = Stronger
- Less similarities = Weaker

Question 5

Criteria for evaluating arguments by analogy (3)

Answer 5

1. The number of observed similarities (strengthens)
2. The number of observed differences (weakens)
3. Having relevant similarities or differences

Question 6

Confucius’ Way (3)

Answer 6

The Way is Comprised of 3 Elements:

1. Developing one’s humanity
2. Devoutly following the rituals of one’s community
3. Doing what is appropriate and humane in all significant relationships

Question 7

Role of Kings (Confucius)

Answer 7

Value of education about reason for laws (versus simply using coercion) in developing self-regulating citizens/subjects

Question 8

Role of Subjects to King (Confucius)

Answer 8

Rule depends on the support/trust of the people: Confucius believes the solidarity of the people is what ultimately matters and what will stand against time

Question 9

Role of Public officials (Confucius)

Answer 9

Role of merit and trustworthiness in appointing officials

Question 10

Role of Gentlemen (Confucius)

Answer 10

1. Focus on developing the mind (education) and knowledge of justice
2. Focus on modesty (vs. ruled by desires), kindness to those below, just in rule and demands of others

Question 11

To Confucius, what leads to the commitment of crime?

Answer 11

Fear of poverty and lack of love

Question 12

Social contract

Answer 12

The partnership between individuals, businesses, civil society and the state to contribute to a system in which there are collective benefits

Question 13

Argument against Confucius’ way

Answer 13

Psychological egoism: All willed human action when properly understood can be seen as reducible to self-interested motives

• i.e., there is no possibility to “develop one’s humanity”/love/concern for others in a Confucian sense
  
  • We are hardwired to only pursue our own self-interest
    - Involves reductionism — reducing human activity to a certain number of motives

Therefore we should turn to Ethical Egoism

Question 14

Ethical Egoism

Answer 14

One should do (in an ethical sense) what is in one’s own self-interest
- You ought to pursue your own self-interest

Question 15

What types of consequences count as being in one’s own interests? (Kinds of interests, Time horizon, Whose interest?, 2 points each)

Answer 15

1. Kinds of interests:
   
   • Simple physical pleasures/hedonism
   • Intellectual pleasures such as learning, poetry, art, beauty, knowledge
2. Time horizon:
   
   • Pursuit of immediate, short-term interests
   • Enlightened egoists: not just short-term interest fulfillment but act to maximize your self-interested fulfillment over the longterm
3. Whose interest?
   
   • everyone should do what is best for me
   • everyone should do what is best for himself/herself

Question 16

Arguments in Favour of Ethical Egoism

Answer 16

1. Everyone is better off serving their pwn interests as we know ourselves best and it is wrong to interfere with another’s life
2. Ethical egoism recognizes the value of one’s on life to oneself vs. altruism, which makes us sacrifice important parts of ourselves
3. Ordinary people are egoists
4. From evolution we need to look after ourselves first to survive

Question 17

Initial Objections to Ethical Egoism (3,1)

Answer 17

1. Paradox of hedonism: hedonism = “we ought to seek pleasure and avoid pain”
2. Need for secrecy: It is bad to persuade others to be ethical egoists
3. Presupposes objectivity: Ethical egoists assume they know what it is they truly need or want but they may be mistaken

• The constant pursuit of one’s own interests may limit the ability to reflect on and discover one’s best interests (if always seeking what is in our own interests, we are never satisfied with what we have (never in the present because we are never in a space of satisfaction)

Question 18

“Self-Interest Hypothesis” for Ethics (version 1)

Answer 18

All our supposed expressions of virtuous sentiments towards others are inauthentic and ultimately grounded in personal self-interest/opportunities for self-gain

Question 19

Social Need Theory

Answer 19

Each person realizes he/she can’t live a solitary existence and therefore promotes an orderly society that ensures individual benefit

Question 20

Self-interest Hypothesis (version 2)

Answer 20

Our expressed concern for well-being of others and the general utility of actions is actually based on our own self-interest fulfilled through promoting the general benefit

• We tend to benefit (to some extent) from those actions promoting a general public benefit

Question 21

What are David Hume’s main critiques on ethical egoism? (2,5)

Answer 21

1. Hume argues that ethical egoism is too narrow and doesn’t explain all human behaviour
2. We are capable of genuine kindness and moral concern beyond self-interest.

1. People do act out of real concern for others, not just selfish reasons.

• We admire the good deeds of people who have no impact on our lives (like historical heroes or strangers in news stories).
• We care about others’ happiness in art, stories, or real life—this isn’t for personal gain.

2. Even animals show kindness without reflecting on self-interest.
3. Benevolence (kindness) is a simpler explanation for moral behaviour than assuming it’s all selfish (Ockham’s Razor: the simplest explanation is best).
4. Not all behaviour is self-interested—we sometimes ignore what’s good for us (e.g., acting out of revenge), so why not also act kindly?
5. Morality is shared: We use universal language like “kind,” “vicious,” “generous”—not words that only apply to personal interests like “enemy” or “rival.”

Question 22

Aristotle’s Grand conclusion

Answer 22

Based on our ability to

1. Delight in our senses for their own sake (for knowledge)
2. Our ability to teach/be taught
3. Ability to develop arts/sciences superior to mere experience

The goal of humans is to learn some type of theoretical knowledge

Question 23

According to Aristotle, what theoretical study demonstrates true wisdom? Why? (1,6)

Answer 23

Metaphysics

1. The most general/most universal/most abstract knowledge
2. Involves first principles
3. Involves the fewest starting principles
4. Investigates causes
5. Is pursued for its own sake (vs. practical ends)
6. Investigates the goal/end of the whole of nature and each thing within nature
7. It is the most “divine science” as God is an object of study in metaphysics, and he would have metaphysical knowledge

Question 24

What is Metaphysics?

Answer 24

Metaphysics explores what is real, including the structure, origin, and purpose of reality

Question 25

Name Aristotle’s 4 Causes (4 Ways to Explain Why Something Exists). Which is most important?

Answer 25

1. **_Material Cause_** (**Compositional Explanation**) – What something is made of (e.g., a chair is made of wood). 2. **_Efficient Cause_** (**Causal Explanation**) – What caused it to happen (e.g., the carpenter made the chair). 3. **_Formal Cause_** (**Definitional Explanation**) – What defines it (e.g., a chair is a seat with legs and a back). 4. **_Final Cause_** (**Teleological Cause**)– What is its purpose or goal (e.g., the chair’s purpose is to sit). - Final cause is the most important to Aristotle

Question 26

Francis Bacon's impact

Answer 26

He separated science from philosophy by focusing on the practical and changing world, rather than abstract or eternal truths -- ultimately laying the foundations for modern science

Question 27

How did Francis Bacon reclassify Aristotle's Causes? (4)

Answer 27

- **Metaphysics** (unchanging world): studies formal causes (essence or definition) → Bacon calls this more like magic when applied. - **Physics** (changing world): studies material and efficient causes (what things are made of and how they change) → this becomes the core of science. Practical applications: - Physics → Mechanics (like engineering) - Metaphysics → Magic (Bacon’s term for deep, transformational knowledge)

Question 28

Bacon's "New Atlantis" Thought Experiment

Answer 28

Bacon imagines a secret scientific island that: - Discovers new knowledge - Applies it to benefit society This vision inspired the creation of the Royal Society, the first modern scientific institution.

Question 28

Describe Bacon's Scientific method (3)

Answer 28

- Study the material parts and efficient causes to understand how things work. - Build knowledge from the bottom up (small elements to big systems). - **Purpose of science** = practical use (to improve life, not just know for the sake of knowing).

Question 29

Traditional Western View of wisdom (1,5)

Answer 29

Wisdom = abstract theory and general truths. Examples: **Aristotle**: metaphysical systems and ultimate purposes. **Aquinas**: debates about spiritual realities (like the nature of God). **Erasmus**: studying texts and languages. **Agrippa**: using higher forces to control the lower world (magic). **Bacon**: experimenting to control nature for practical use.

Question 30

Indigenous View of Wisdom (1,2)

Answer 30

Wisdom = situated, lived, and local. - Rooted in place, relationships, nature, and tradition - Comes from observing nature, learning from experience, and using one's unique gifts

Question 31

Core principles of Indigenous Wisdom

Answer 31

1. **Wisdom is tied to place & community** - Derives from a deep connection with homeland/ecosystems - Uses local knowledge to solve problems - Rooted in a community's language, stories, and traditions 2. **Everything is interconnected** - _World is one whole_: physical + spiritual, living + non-living - Actions in one realm affect the other - Emphasizes balance and respect 3. **Learning is holistic** (Medicine wheel) - _True wisdom involves a balance in_: Physical, Mental, Emotional, and Spiritual learning 4. **Each person has a purpose** - Every person (like all things in nature) is unique and has a gift - You should live according to your gift - Don't wish to be someone else - live based on who you are

Question 32

Indigenous peoples view wisdom as what? Why? (1,4)

Answer 32

A cycle - Life is cyclical, not just about progress - Wisdom grows with age, tradition, and observation - Nature and elders are seen as teachers - Wisdom is not just learned -- it must be lived

Question 33

Explain how Indigenous peoples acknowledge nature as a teacher (3)

Answer 33

- Wisdom is learned by watching and listening to nature. - The Three Sisters (corn, beans, squash) show how life forms work together. - Reflects cooperation, balance, and mutual support.

Question 34

Modern connections with Indigenous wisdom (2,3)

Answer 34

Indigenous wisdom values: - Sustainable living - Ecological harmony - Rights of Nature (recognizing rivers, forests, etc. as having legal status) Inspires ideas like natural capital and eco-friendly practices.

Question 35

Key difference between Indigenous Wisdom and Aristotle & Bacon

Answer 35

- **Aristotle/Bacon**: Wisdom = abstract theory or experimental control. - **Indigenous view**: Wisdom = living in harmony with nature, learning from cycles, and honoring one’s place and gift in the web of life.