Clauses

Question 1

What are clauses all about?

Answer 1

lexical verbs

Question 2

Every clause contains .. ?

Answer 2

one lexical verb

Question 3

What is a clause?

Answer 3

a syntactic unit above phrase
level and below sentence level

Question 4

What is a sentence?

Answer 4

the largest unit in syntax

Question 5

What does a sentence consist of?

Answer 5

One or more clauses, always consists of a subject and a predicate that contains a finite verb

Question 6

What do clauses and sentences have in common?

Answer 6

They are syntactic units.

Question 7

What’s the difference between clauses and sentences?

Answer 7

Sentences can always stand alone, clauses cannot.

Question 8

There are four types of sentences, what are they?

Answer 8

• Simple sentence
• Compound sentence
• Complex sentence
• Compound-complex sentence

Question 9

What is a simple sentence?

Answer 9

1 main clause (1 lexical verbs)

e.g. Thomas wrote an essay.

Question 10

What is a compound sentence?

Answer 10

2+ main clauses

Thomas wrote an essay and I was cooking dinner.

connected with a coordinator

Question 11

What is a complex sentence?

Answer 11

1 main clause & 1+ subordinate clause(s)

Thomas wrote an essay, while I was cooking dinner.

“connected” with a subordinator, hierarchy

Question 12

What is a compound-complex sentence?

Answer 12

2 main clauses & 1+ subordinate clause(s)

I was cooking dinner and Maria was working on her novel, while Thomas wrote an essay.

Question 13

What are the two types of subordinate clauses?

Answer 13

• Non-finite (not marked for tense)
• Finite (marked for tense)

Question 14

What is a non-finite subordinate clause?

Answer 14

• Infinitive
• -ed clause (past participle)
• -ing clause

Question 14

What is a finite subordinate clause?

Answer 14

• Noun clause
• Adverbial clause
• Relative clause
• Comparative clause

Question 15

What is a misrelated (‘dangling’) non-finite clause?

Answer 15

The implied subject of the non-finite clause should be the same as the subject of the main clause to avoid ambiguity.

While walking across the street, the bus hit her.
vs.
Walking down Main Street, I admired the
beautiful trees.

Question 15

What are catenative verbs?

Answer 15

verbs that elicit “verb chains”, they can be followed by another verb within the same clause

e.g. I really want [to help [make the yearbook]].

Question 16

What verbs only take the to-infinitive clause after them?

Answer 16

decide, ask, happen, afford, hope, manage, want

Question 17

What verbs only take the -ing clause after them?

Answer 17

consider, finish, admit, enjoy, avoid, practise

Question 18

Some verbs can go with both clause types, why?

Answer 18

• Little/no difference in meaning
• Difference in meaning

interchangeable

Question 19

What are the two types of meaning difference that allow the to-infitive or -ing clause after the verb?

Answer 19

• Referring to the past (ing) vs. Referring to the future (infinitive)
• Fact (ing) vs. general assumption/idea (infinitive)

Question 20

What are the two options of sensory perception verbs?

Answer 20

• not necessarily finished (ing) vs. completed action (infinitive)
• repeated action (ing) vs. singular action (infinitive)

e.g. see, hear, feel, listen to, look at, notice, observe, watch, sense

Question 21

What are verbless clauses?

Answer 21

missing out the verb

e.g. If in doubt consult your solicitor.

Question 22

What are the steps of identifying a subordinate clause?

Answer 22

1. Identify the lexical verb in the main clause
2. Identify the subordinate clause(s) and mark the verb in it
3. Identify whether the subordinate clause is finite or non-finite
4. Identify the syntactic function of the subordinate clause

Question 23

What does finite mean?

Answer 23

marked for tense/person | noun clause, adverbial clause, relative clause, comparative clause

Question 24

What does non-finite mean?

Answer 24

unmarked | infinitive, -ing form, -ed

Question 25

What are the 3,5 types of finite subordinate clauses?

Answer 25

- Noun clause - Adverbial clause - Relative clause - Comparative clause

Question 26

What are the two types of Noun Clauses?

Answer 26

1. that-clause 2. wh-clause

Question 27

What could be a that-clause?

Answer 27

- Direct Object - Subject - Subject Complement - Complement in AdjP/NP ## Footnote I realized *that I had to tell the truth.* *That you are* here is great. Her opinion is *that we need to fight climate change.* I am [happy *that you are here*].

Question 28

What could be a wh-clause?

Answer 28

- Direct Object - Subject - Subject Complement ## Footnote Clause types / mood of wh-clauses: declarative, interrogative (open & closed), exclamative, mandative subjunctive I don’t know *how he will react.* *When we will meet* is still unclear. The question is *whether we’ll arrive on time.*

Question 29

What are the characteristics of adverbial clauses?

Answer 29

- provide additional info - contain a finite verb - are always introduced by a subordinator | Six types: time, place, reason, purpose, condition, concession

Question 30

What are the six types of adverbial clauses?

Answer 30

- time (=when sth. happens) - place (=where sth. happens) - reason (why sth. happens/explanation) - purpose (=the purpose for which sth. happens) - condition (=under what condition/in what circumstances sth. will happen/be true) - concession (=highlights an action that took place in spite of an obsticle/hindrance) | Concession subordinators: Even though, while, Although, whereas, even if

Question 31

What is an if-clause?

Answer 31

condition for the occurrence of another event/precondition | also: antecedent ## Footnote conditional clauses

Question 32

What does the main clause in Conditional Clauses express?

Answer 32

the consequence | also: consequent

Question 33

What types of Conditionals are there?

Answer 33

- Real Conditionals (Predictive, Factual) - Unreal Conditionals (Hypothetical, Counterfactual) | was for real condit., were for unreal; would only for politeness in if ## Footnote factual = generally true predictive = likely hypothetical = unlikely counterfactual = impossible

Question 34

Finite verbs of if-clause and main clause are usually marked for specific tenses, name them.

Answer 34

- Factual: present/past + present/past - Predictive: present + present modal - Hypothetical: past + past modal - Counterfactual: past perfect + past perfect modal ## Footnote When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers. If you set your mind to a goal, you will eventually achieve it. If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon. If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier

Question 35

What is at the beginning of a comparative clause?

Answer 35

as or than | function as subordinators ## Footnote Jim is as strong as we had expected. & He is stronger than we had expected. But: “He is stronger than his brother." → [than his brother] is a post-head modifier of the AdjP → [than his brother] does not contain a finite verb, i.e. can’t be a clause

Question 36

What is a relative clause?

Answer 36

- part of a NP - functions as a post-head dependent - usually introduced by relative pronouns (which, who, whom, that, whose)

Question 37

What are the three main relative pronouns that introduce a relative clause and what do they refer to?

Answer 37

- which vs. who -> animals/objects/places vs. people - whom -> object of a sentence - that -> informal, only in restrictive relative clauses

Question 38

What's the difference between a restrictive relative clause & a non-restrictive relative clause?

Answer 38

- Restrictive Relative Clause is necessary information, modifier of NP - Non-restrictive Relative Clause is additional information, so peripheral dependent of NP ## Footnote The man who is wearing a yellow hat is her husband. -> multiple men, necessary info The man, who is wearing a yellow hat, is her husband. -> only one man, additional info

Question 39

What are the three subtypes of restrictive relative clauses?

Answer 39

- Zero relative clause (doesn't have a relative pronoun) - Reduced relative clause (no relative element) - Nominal relative clause (replaces a pronoun) ## Footnote This is the man (that) I met. 'The man writing the report is my friend' instead of 'The man who is writing the report..' I know who is replacing you.

Question 40

What is a sentential relative clause?

Answer 40

- non-restrictive - relative clause that relates to the whole sentence ## Footnote She's very shy, which I think is a great pity. James answered my email, which was surprising.

Question 41

What is a comparative clause?

Answer 41

modifier of an adverb or adjective ## Footnote e.g. He performed worse than you did. - modifier of adverb worse