Climatology

Question 1

What does climatology deal with?

Answer 1

Atmospheric processes at various scales

This includes understanding weather and climate differences.

Question 2

Define weather and climate.

Answer 2

Weather: short-term atmospheric state; Climate: long-term average patterns.

Question 3

What are the spatial scales in climatology?

Answer 3

• Macro-scale (e.g., continents)
• Meso-scale (e.g., regions, cities)
• Micro-scale (e.g., local environments)

Question 4

What are the temporal scales in climatology?

Answer 4

• Daily (weather)
• Seasonal to millennial (climate)

Question 5

What is the First Law of Thermodynamics?

Answer 5

Energy is conserved; it changes form.

Question 6

What is the main energy source for the Earth’s climate system?

Answer 6

The Sun emits electromagnetic radiation.

Question 7

What is the significance of radiation in climatology?

Answer 7

It explains energy input and output based on object temperature.

Question 8

Differentiate between shortwave and longwave radiation.

Answer 8

• Shortwave (solar): reflected or absorbed
• Longwave (terrestrial): emitted by Earth, absorbed by atmosphere

Question 9

What drives atmospheric stability?

Answer 9

Latent heat and buoyancy.

Question 10

What do adiabatic processes in atmospheric stability refer to?

Answer 10

• DAR: ~1°C/100m (dry air)
• MAR: ~0.4–0.8°C/100m (moist air)

Question 11

What conditions are associated with atmospheric stability?

Answer 11

• Stable: parcel cooler than environment → sinks
• Unstable: parcel warmer → rises
• Conditionally Unstable: dry parcel sinks, moist rises

Question 12

Identify the types of clouds and their stability.

Answer 12

• Cumulus = unstable
• Stratus = stable
• Cirrus = high altitude, ice-based

Question 13

What is the radiation imbalance in the climate system?

Answer 13

Surplus at equator, deficit at poles → circulation.

Question 14

What forces drive wind?

Answer 14

• Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
• Coriolis Force
• Friction

Question 15

Describe the geostrophic wind.

Answer 15

PGF and Coriolis in balance → parallel to isobars.

Question 16

What is the process of cyclogenesis?

Answer 16

1. Airmass interaction
2. Surface convergence
3. Organized cyclone forms

Question 17

What is an anticyclone?

Answer 17

High-pressure zones associated with clear skies and slow movement.

Question 18

What are meso-scale circulations?

Answer 18

Circulations that occur on scales of 10–200 km, hours to days.

Question 19

What is the Froude Number (Fr) in orographic effects?

Answer 19

Fr = πU/Nx

Question 20

What happens to moist air in the Foehn wind?

Answer 20

Rises on windward side → cools & rains; descends leeward side → warms, becomes dry.

Question 21

What are the characteristics of the Pleistocene climate period?

Answer 21

Characterized by repeated glacial-interglacial cycles.

Question 22

What is the Younger Dryas?

Answer 22

An abrupt cooling event possibly due to meltwater influx disrupting thermohaline circulation.

Question 23

What do ice cores provide in climate studies?

Answer 23

Data on temperature, greenhouse gases, volcanic eruptions.

Question 24

What is the significance of Milankovitch cycles?

Answer 24

They control glacial-interglacial dynamics.

Question 25

What is the purpose of climate models?

Answer 25

Simulate Earth’s climate system using mathematical equations.

Question 26

What are the components of Global Climate Models (GCMs)?

Answer 26

* Dynamical core * Parameterizations * Resolution

Question 27

What does ECS stand for in climate sensitivity?

Answer 27

Equilibrium Climate Sensitivity.

Question 28

What is the difference between ECS and TCR?

Answer 28

* ECS: long-term temp increase for CO₂ doubling * TCR: temp change at time of CO₂ doubling in 70-year ramp-up

Question 29

What is optimal fingerprinting in attribution studies?

Answer 29

A statistical method comparing observations with expected patterns from different forcings.

Question 30

What is the Little Ice Age?

Answer 30

Cooler temperatures in Europe and North America from ~1300 – 1850 CE.

Question 31

What is the role of proxy records in paleoclimate studies?

Answer 31

Provide indirect climate data.

Question 32

What is the significance of the Medieval Warm Period?

Answer 32

Regional warming, especially in North Atlantic, not globally synchronous.

Question 33

What is the method of dynamical downscaling?

Answer 33

Nesting a high-resolution RCM inside a GCM.

Question 34

What are the major climate periods identified in the lecture?

Answer 34

* Last Glacial Maximum * Mid-Holocene * Last Interglacial

Question 35

True or False: Climate sensitivity is the same as climate variability.

Answer 35

False.

Question 36

What is the definition of risk according to the IPCC framework?

Answer 36

Risk = hazard × exposure × vulnerability.

Question 37

What are examples of climate hazards?

Answer 37

* Heatwaves * Droughts * Floods * Sea level rise * Storms

Question 38

What factors drive vulnerability and exposure to climate change?

Answer 38

Development level, geography, governance.

Question 39

What are tipping points in the context of climate change?

Answer 39

Critical thresholds in Earth system leading to abrupt or irreversible changes.

Question 40

What is the difference between incremental and transformational adaptation?

Answer 40

Incremental adaptation involves small adjustments, while transformational adaptation requires significant changes to systems.

Question 41

What are the limits to adaptation?

Answer 41

* Soft limits: Lack of resources/infrastructure * Hard limits: Biophysical thresholds (e.g., habitability limits)

Question 42

True or False: Climate change impacts are solely determined by physical climate changes.

Answer 42

False

Question 43

What is the importance of attribution in climate change?

Answer 43

Understanding responsibility and guiding responses.

Question 44

What is optimal fingerprinting?

Answer 44

A statistical method comparing observations with expected patterns from different forcings.

Question 45

What is a challenge in the attribution of extreme weather events?

Answer 45

Their rare nature and local influences make attribution more difficult.

Question 46

How quickly can event attribution frameworks estimate human influence on events?

Answer 46

Within days/weeks after events.

Question 47

What are the two types of adaptation discussed?

Answer 47

* Incremental adaptation * Transformational adaptation

Question 48

Fill in the blank: The interaction between physical climate change and societal factors determines _______.

Answer 48

[impacts]

Question 49

What is a key take-home message regarding climate change impacts?

Answer 49

They are mediated by socio-economic context.

Question 50

What is the role of reducing vulnerability and exposure in climate change management?

Answer 50

It is as important as managing climate hazards.

Question 51

What must be passed for confident attribution in climate studies?

Answer 51

Detection thresholds.

Question 52

How has the methodology for attribution changed recently?

Answer 52

Methods are improving but still have limitations, especially regionally.