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methods in physical geography > Climatology methods > Flashcards

Climatology methods Flashcards

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1
Q

what is a map?

A

A design that communicates any aspect of real or theoretical location beyond our immediate comprehension by preserving spatial arrangements and simplifying detail.

Maps help make environments understandable because environments are complex, larger than we can perceive, not transportable, and seemingly infinite in detail

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2
Q

Map Functions Beyond Representation

A

Maps can also model ideas about how/why elements interact, combine non-spatial data with locations, and model potential or imagined features and their relationships.

Since the 19th century, maps have included non-spatial information (such as stats) as well as location data.

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3
Q

why is there Subjectivity in Cartography?

A

In order to make a map, a cartographer has to make subjective decisions over what it will display, choosing the visual lens.

Maps should be looked at as subjective constructions, implying there are essentially infinite ways to map one geographical area.

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4
Q

what is GIS?

A

A digital means of combining layers of spatial and non spatial data to analyse and visualise data about the world and understand relationships between different aspects of it.

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5
Q

what is a key aspect of GIS?

A

Layering, which allows you to understand environments in relation to one another.

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6
Q

why use GIS?

A

Being able to understand what happens where and, sometimes, when, helps us carry out activities, policies, plans and strategies; the data that tells us this is Geographic Information.

Understanding Geographic Information is more important than ever today due to the vast amount collected from sources like smartphones, cars, and social media

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7
Q

WHAT are the 2 types pf data in GIS?

A

vector
raster

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8
Q

what is vector data?

A

Uses a series of coordinates strung together to create points, lines (strings of coordinates), and polygons (joined coordinates to create a shape).

The main source of this data is often fieldwork using GPS devices

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9
Q

what is raster data?

A

Doesn’t use coordinates but instead uses a grid of equally sized cells, each one given a numerical value and location. Each cell is equivalent to a pixel

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10
Q

What are the sources of raster data?

A

Collected using remote sensing methods such as aerial photography, satellite imagery, and drones. Can also be created by scanning paper maps

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11
Q

what are data attributes?

A

Applies to both vector and raster data, but more common in vector data.
This is non-spatial information (numerical or descriptive) stored in a table linked to map features

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12
Q

what is metadata?

A

Data about the data,

used to help understand the data and its suitability and reliability. Includes information like accuracy, creation date, creator, source, and copyright info.

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13
Q

what is spatial analysis?

A

A technique using geographical data to analyse locations, relationships and patterns in a geographical context.

It helps to understand the spatial distribution of phenomena and their relationships

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14
Q

what is the principle of spatial analysis?

A

It is the crux of GIS, adding value to geographic data and turning it into useful information.

It can reveal things that may have otherwise been invisible, making what is implicit explicit.

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15
Q

Spatial Statistics Tools use?

A

Allow processing of data to gain a numerical output

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16
Q

Distance Matrix

A

Automates measuring distances between each feature in a large dataset across multiple layers

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17
Q

Nearest Neighbour Analysis

A

Provides a numerical value describing the extent to which points are clustered by calculating the mean distance between each point and others on the same layer.

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18
Q

Centroids

A

Calculates the central point of features. Outputs can be displayed spatially (on the map) and numerically

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19
Q

Mean Coordinates

A

GIS can calculate the mean of the coordinates of each polygon’s nodes, plotting the mean location.
This produces a slightly different result from centroids

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20
Q

Isotropic Analysis

A

A visual output tool based on distance

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21
Q

Buffer Analysis

A

A basic and useful technique involving the construction of a fixed zone around a point, line, or polygon

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22
Q

Kernel Density Analysis

A

A quick way of producing a map to show clusters based on a point layer input.

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23
Q

Spatial Interpolation

A

Operates on the basis that a value in one location is likely to be most similar to the ones around it (Tobler’s first law of geography)

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24
Q

Inverse Distance Rating

A

A common method for spatial interpolation which calculates weighted averages, giving the greatest weight to the closest points with known measurements. Used to estimate values for locations without measured values

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25
Anisotropic Analysis
Takes into account one or more characteristics of the landscape, not treating all distances and directions equally. Can better reflect real environments and give more realistic results.
26
Network Analysis
An example of anisotropic analysis used for calculating routes within the confines of a network (like roads or pipelines). Used everyday in applications like sat navs
27
what are the 7 cartographic design principles?
clarity and legibility visual contrast figure ground relationship visual hierarchy Cartographic conventions Balance organizing elements
28
Clarity and Legibility
Everything on the map should be easy to read and distinct
29
Visual Contrast
Ensure symbols are sufficiently different to be correctly identified, helping with clarity and legibility
30
Figure-Ground Relationship
Foreground elements must be distinguished from background elements for understandability
31
Visual Hierarchy
Main subjects should be emphasised so users see them first, using techniques like colour, thickness, or form
32
Cartographic Conventions
Presenting information as readers expect may increase usability, though deliberate departures can clarify a message
33
Balance
Arranging map elements so they do not distract or detract from the message
34
Organising Elements
Arranging elements to guide the reader’s interpretation and order of perception.
35
what are Geostationary Satellites and what are they used for?
Remain fixed over one location, in a high orbit. Provide high temporal resolution (frequent data) but lower spatial resolution. Used for weather monitors, telecommunications, TV broadcasting. Orbit around the equator at a fixed position
36
what are polar sun synchronous satteleites and what are they used for?
Successive orbits build up global coverage, passing over the poles. Offer low temporal resolution but high spatial resolution. Orbit closer to the Earth's surface. Used for weather forecasting, climate monitoring, earth mapping
37
what are active sensors?
Send out their own pulses of electromagnetic waves (e.g., RADAR, LIDAR) and measure the reflection. Can tell things about the atmosphere or surface. Most are on polar orbiting satellites
38
What are passive sensors?
Measure radiation being emitted through various objects naturally. They do not play an active role
39
RADAR (Radio Detection And Ranging)
An active sensor used to measure ground elevation and sea surface height
40
LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging)
An active sensor used to measure aerosols and winds. Sends a laser beam through the atmosphere and measures backscatter, with the time taken giving height details. Can be carried on aircraft, satellites, or placed on the ground
41
Visible Radiation (Satellite Imagery)
Measures radiation emitted elsewhere (like the sun) and reflected by the Earth. Useful for identifying objects based on their reflection characteristics. Thicker clouds (higher reflectivity) appear brighter
42
Infrared Radiation (Satellite Imagery)
Measures radiation emitted by bodies below them (like the Earth). Tells us about the temperature of the emitting body, essentially forming temperature maps. In infrared images, white often indicates cold (longer wavelengths) and black indicates hot (shorter wavelengths)
43
Spectral Signature
A graph or data showing how a material reflects (or emits) radiation across a range of wavelengths. Each material has a unique spectral fingerprint which helps identify or classify it from remote sensing data
44
Spectral Resolution
A measure of the instrument's ability to resolve features in the electromagnetic spectrum (distinguish close wavelengths). High spectral resolution captures data in narrow bands and can differentiate materials with similar spectral characteristics.
45
Satellite Application Examples
Recognition of cloud, snow/ice, and Earth's surface characteristics based on reflection. Using infrared to determine temperature. Estimating cloud top height (related to temperature and height) and rainfall from clouds (though potential issues exist with different cloud types like cirrus and nimbostratus affecting accuracy).
46
Importance of Satellites
Without them, it would be difficult to confidently attribute climate change to humans, weather forecasts would be less accurate, and monitoring environmental change would be more difficult and unequal
47
GRACE Mission
Actively senses the distance between a pair of satellites to passively observe groundwater fluctuations. Measures small differences in the Earth's surface gravity that build a picture of how water masses (frozen or liquid) are changing over time. Used to measure ice sheet loss and seasonal reservoir/lake changes
48
Calibration is sattelite data
Calibration measurements taken on the ground/surface of Earth are imperative to establish the magnitude, relevance, and applicability of satellite data readings. Ground calibrations are necessary for useful information relay
49
what is an Index in climate analysis?
A measurement (often a calculated value from a time series) used to indicate variance from mean conditions and describe the state and changes in the climate system for a particular event. Example: The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) for detecting El Niño and La Niña years.
50
what is correlation analysis?
Measures whether two time series co-vary (go up and down together). Measured by the correlation statistic (r-value). Can be shown by plotting variables on a scatterplot or at each grid point on maps. Involves all the data in the index/target time series. Needs a consistent relationship across the range of data to show a strong linear link
51
Composite Analysis
Looks for patterns in the data, but only involves some of the data, usually the extremes. Allows you to look at the average conditions during specific events
52
what are the steps in composite analysis?
Create a time series (index) pick out time steps of interest (extremes) select data for those time steps, average across the selected time steps to produce a composite mean subtract reference climatology from the composite mean to produce a composite anomaly (map of difference)
53
Composite Analysis Advantages
Simple to use/analyse/programme, sampling extreme cases gives a clear picture of an effect (if one exists), widely used, cancels out random noise
54
Composite Analysis Disadvantages
Needs an index, result depends on event choice, cause and effect aren't demonstrated conclusively, no statistical significance given by a simple mean/anomaly, large events distort the mean.
55
Reanalysis Data
A method for reconstructing past atmospheric, oceanic, or land surface conditions by blending observations with model outputs over time. Output is often given in gridded format.
56
Importance of Fieldwork (Climate)
Other sources and observations (field data) are needed to ground-truth satellites and to nudge re-analysis towards reality. Important for checking climate models are on the right track.
57
Environmental Model
A mathematical abstract representation of environmental behaviour/dynamics, based on laws of physics and simplifying assumptions
58
Why Use Environmental Models?
To understand environmental processes over time and space, and to understand critical drivers of environmental change. Should not be used as an alternative to observation, but to understand observations and develop/test theory
59
GIS Approach (Flood Inundation)
a type of model for flood inundation
60
Hydrodynamic Models (Flood Inundation)
LISFLOOD-FP Telemac-2D
61
Telemac-2D
unstructured grid, uses triangles, detail where needed, variable spatial resolution, can incorporate more variables)
62
LISFLOOD-FP
Structured grid (raster data) Flood spreading as a function of bed friction, gravity, topography High spatial resolution Problem is that it will apply physics equation to every cell
63
what is Hindcasting?
Predicting the past to measure predictive accuracy, used to predict into the future
64
Sensitivity Study
Testing the impact of each parameter value and measuring the predicted outcome.
65
Types of Geomorphology Models
Physics driven (too complex) Behaviour orientated (theoretically/physically wrong but can predict well) Hybrid (maintain physics approach, use sediment transport outputs for behavioural model)
66
Ecological Niche Modelling
Uses GIS models based on existing ecological conditions to determine optimum space for a species and produce a species distribution model. Layers can be changed to suggest changes in distribution based on environmental conditions
67
Factors for Choosing an Appropriate Model
Must consider the: goals, structure (adequacy for complexity), outputs (help achieve aims), inputs (data required and availability), accessibility
68
Explain the key differences between spatial and non-spatial data in GIS, giving examples of the major types of each
Spatial data refers to data that represents the location, shape, and relationships of geographic features on the Earth's surface. examples - vector and raster data Non-spatial data refers to descriptive information about spatial features. Does not contain geographic location. Describes the attributes or characteristics of spatial features. Stored in tables and linked to spatial features via an ID or key. examples - nominal, ordinal , interval

methods in physical geography (3 decks)

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