Clinical conditions

Question 1

What is protein denaturation?

Answer 1

Loss of protein structure due to disruption of interactions responsible for secondary and tertiary structure, resulting in loss of function

Question 2

What are some causes of protein denaturation?

Answer 2

Heat
pH
Organic solvents
Urea
Detergents

Question 3

Why do denatured proteins lose their function?

Answer 3

Have altered active sites so can’t catalyse reactions

Receptors cant bind to signal molecules so cant cause cell signalling

Question 4

What is the consequences of protein misfolding?

Answer 4

Cant perform functions

Accumulate in cells and tissues

Question 5

What is the name of misfolded proteins?

Answer 5

Prion proteins

Question 6

What is are examples of diseases associated with protein misfolding and how do they occur?

Answer 6

Alzheimer’s disease- humans
Spongiform encephalopathy- animals
Prion proteins deposit in the brain which impairs normal functions

Question 7

What is exocrine pancreatic insufficiency?

Answer 7

Not enough exocrine enzymes enzymes are produced so body cant digest or absorb molecules

Question 8

What are the symptoms of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency?

Answer 8

Weight loss

Increased appetite

Question 9

How is exocrine pancreatic insufficiency diagnosed?

Answer 9

Trypsin like immunoreactivity test to test trypsin(digests proteins) levels in the blood, low levels show EPI

Question 10

How is exocrine pancreatic insufficiency treated?

Answer 10

Pancreatic enzyme supplementation
Eating highly digestible low fat diet
Treat cause of chronic pancreatitus

Question 11

What is pancreatitis?

Answer 11

Inflammation of the pancreas, chronic or acute

Question 12

What are the consequences of pancreatitis?

Answer 12

Activate zymogens early so they begin to break down the body tissues and organs rather than food
Can lead to haemorrhage and death if not treated

Question 13

What are causes of pancreatitis?

Answer 13

High fat diet
Iatrogenic- medical treatment involving glucocorticoids
Idiopathic- spontaneous

Question 14

How is pancreatitis treated in the short and long term?

Answer 14

IV fluid therapy
Anti-emetics
Analgesia and anti-inflammatory drugs
Starving for 24 hours to rest pancreas
Long term management involving diet changes and weight loss

Question 15

What is hyperammonia?

Answer 15

Ammonia not removed in urea cycle so has toxic build up

Question 16

What are the symptoms of hyperammonia?

Answer 16

Vomiting
Abnormal gait
Head pressing
Seizures
Coma 
Death

Question 17

How is hyperammonia caused?

Answer 17

Portosystemic shunt allows blood to bypass the liver so it isn’t detoxified in urea cycle for ammonia excretion
Lack of enzymes for urea cycle

Question 18

How is hyperammonia treated?

Answer 18

Close portosystemic shunt
Reduce dietary protein
Medication to manage ammonia excretion
Supplement urea cycle enzymes

Question 19

Define coenzymes?

Answer 19

Carriers and donors of functional groups, usually have dietary precursors due to body not being able to synthesise them

Question 20

What are common coenzyme deficiencies?

Answer 20

Thiamine/B1

Cobalamin/vitamin B12

Question 21

What are the signs of thiamine deficiency?

Answer 21

Lethargy
Anorexia
Neurological signs
Seixures

Question 22

How is thiamine deficiency diagnosed and treated?

Answer 22

Given thiamine to see if symptoms improve

Thiamine supplements and dietary changes

Question 23

What is the consequences of cobalamin deficiency?

Answer 23

Un functioning enzymes
Poor body conditions
Inability to gain weight
Weakness
Vomiting
Diarrhoea

Question 24

How is cobalamin deficiency treated?

Answer 24

Supplements

Question 25

What is polysaccharide storage myopathy?

Answer 25

Genetic equine condition causing incorrect glucose storage | Too much glycogen synthase produces causes long chains with minimal branching, relatively resistant to amylase

Question 26

What structure is glucose normally stored?

Answer 26

Glycogen with alpha 1-6 branches for easy release and alpha 1-4 branches to make chain

Question 27

What enzymes are involved in glycogen formation and breakdown?

Answer 27

Glycogen synthase- alpha 1-4 Glycogen branching enzyme- alpha 1-6 Amylase- breaks bonds

Question 28

What are the effects of polysaccharide storage myopathy?

Answer 28

Over production of glycogen but little available glucose Lack of energy Muscle stiffness Muscle breakdown for use as fuel

Question 29

How can polysaccharide storage myopathy managed?

Answer 29

Low-starch and high fat diet to provide fuel

Question 30

What is phosphofructokinase deficiency?

Answer 30

Deficiency of phosphofructokinase enzyme which is crucial for formation of fructose-1,6-biphosphate in preparatory phase of glycolysis, with out it glycolysis cant take place

Question 31

What are the symptoms of phosphofructokinase deficiency?

Answer 31

Muscle fatigue Weakness Pain Stiffness

Question 32

What are the causes of phosphofructokinase?

Answer 32

Genetic but recessive present in spaniels

Question 33

What is the treatment for phosphofructokinase?

Answer 33

Change in diet to high protien, high fat and low carbohydrates Reduce exercise

Question 34

What do yeast and bacteria use to store polysaccharides?

Answer 34

Dextrans

Question 35

What are the issues associated with dextran's in the body?

Answer 35

Form plaque and allow bacteria to stick to teeth | Cause gum and tooth damage

Question 36

What are lectins?

Answer 36

Proteins that bind to carbohydrate on cell membranes and allow extraversion of leukocytes, present on some bacterial and viral pathogens

Question 37

What is the lectin found in influenza virus and what is its effect?

Answer 37

Haemagglutinin Binds to cell surface carbohydrates to allow viral membrane to fuse with cells membrane so viral genome can enter cell and replicate

Question 38

How can lectins be helpful for treatments?

Answer 38

Get targeted to inhibit attachment to cells

Question 39

What are lipomas?

Answer 39

Benign masses due to abnormal adipose cell growth

Question 40

What are signs of lipomas?

Answer 40

``` Mobile mass in skin Slow growth of mass Pain free Squishy Fine needle aspiration contains cells with large lipid vacuoles ```

Question 41

What are the treatments for lipomas?

Answer 41

Removed when cause mobility issues or look unsightly | Eat low fat diet to possible prevent

Question 42

What is ketoacidosis caused by?

Answer 42

Intense gluconeogenesis causes acetyl CoA to form into ketone bodies, prolonged for a long time

Question 43

What are the issues of ketoacidosis?

Answer 43

Lower plasma pH, kidneys produce acidic urine Increased urination rate Dehydration

Question 44

What is the role of vitamin K?

Answer 44

Cofactor for adding carboxylic acid to activate or inactivate clotting factors

Question 45

What are symptoms of vitamin K deficiency?

Answer 45

``` Bruising Red spots on MMs Prolonged bleeding Spontaneous haematoma Haemorrhage ```

Question 46

What causes vitamin K deficinecy?

Answer 46

Vitamin K absorption defects in in gut Recycling defects Recycling blockers

Question 47

What is the role of COX enzymes?

Answer 47

Prostaglandin synthesis

Question 48

What are the issues associated with COX blocking drugs?

Answer 48

Block pain but can prevent gastric secretions causing stomach irritations, ulcers and gastric bleeding

Question 49

What are the benefits of COX blocking drugs?

Answer 49

Pain and inflammation relief | Reduces risk of heart attacks and strokes from preventing formation of thromboxane platelets

Question 50

What are fatty acid metabolism disorders?

Answer 50

Body cant produce or use enzyme needed to oxidise fatty acids, energy from fatty acids not available

Question 51

What are the different types of fatty acid disorders?

Answer 51

Defects in oxidation- fatty acids cant form so cant enter mitochondria for oxidation Defects in carnitine shuttle- acyl CoA cant enter mitochondria for oxidation

Question 52

What are the effects of fatty acid metabolism disorder?

Answer 52

Fatty acid build up in liver as sent from adipose but cant be broken down Excess glucose use for energy causing hypoglycaemia, weakness, fatigue and seizures

Question 53

How is fatty acid metabolism disorder treated?

Answer 53

High fibre, low fat diet | Frequent meals to avoid use of fat stores